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c4*0 


U  "5  4.  I 


CAEEOTS, 


MANGOLD  WURTZELS 


SUGAR    BEETS. 


HOW    TO    RAISE    THEM,   HOW    TO    KEEP    THEM 
AND   HOW  TO   FEED   THEM. 


By  JAMES  J.  H.  GREGORY, 

AUTHOR    OF    "ONION   RAISING,"    "CABBAGE    RAISING,"    ETC. 


MARBLEHEAD,  MASS 

MESSENGER    STEAM    PRINTING    HOUSE. 
1882. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1877,  by 

JAMES  J.  H.  GREGORY, 
At  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Massachusetts. 


CONTEXTS 


Page. 

The  Argument  for  the  Raising  of  roots,  -  3 

THE  CARROT           -  5 

The  Location  and  Soil               -  6 

The  Manure  and  its  Application  -  7 

Preparing  the  Bed        -  12 

When  to  Plant               -              -  -  13 

The  Seed  and  the  Planting  of  it  -  14 

Quantity  to  the  Acre    -  -  15 

Varieties,  and  What  Kinds  to  Grow  -  1 7 

Early  Very  Short  Scarlet    -  -              -  19 

Early  Short  Scarlet  Horn  -  19 

Short  Horn            -  -  19 

Danvers  Carrot     -              -  -  19 

Long  Orange,  or  Long  Surry  -  20 

Altringham             -  -21 

Large  White  Belgian          -  2 1 

The  Cultivation,  and  the  Implements  needed    -  22 

Gathering  and  Storing  the  Crop  -              -  24 

Raising  Carrots  with  Onion.;     -  -              -  27 

Marketing  and  Feeding  -  2S 

THE  MANGOLD  WURTZELS  -             -  30 

Varieties                          -  -  32 


The  Long  Varieties      -  -  32 

The  Round  Varieties    -  -  S3 

The  Ovoid  Varieties     -              -  33 

What  Kinds  to  Grow    -  -  33 

The  Soil  and  its  Preparation     -  -  -  36 

The  Manure  and  its  Application  -  -  37 

Salt  as  an  Auxiliary  Manure      -  ••  -  45 

Planting  the  Seed  and  Tending  the  Crop  -  46 

Gathering  and  Storing  the  Crop  -  49 

Feeding  the  Crop         -             -  -  -  5  - 

The  Cost  of  the  Crop                -  ••  -  57 


CABROTS. 

THE  ARGUMENT  FOR  THE   RAISING  OF    ROOTS. 

The  fact  that  the  most  progressive  and  successful  farmers 
in  the  dairy  districts,  where  the  prices  received  for  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  dairy  stimulates  to  the  highest  enterprise,  are 
raisers  of  roots,  (by  which  I  now  more  especially  refer  to 
Carrots  or  Mangold  Wurtzel)  in  about  the  same  degree  as 
they  are  pecuniarily  successful,  is  in  itself  a  great  practical 
argument  for  root  culture. 

In  nutritious  value  roots  compare  with  hay  in  about  the 
average  proportion  of  one  to  three.  If  now  we  consider 
that  thirty-four  tons  of  Swedes,  nearly  forty  tons  of  Carrots 
and  seventy-four  tons  of  Mangold  roots  have  been  raised  in 
Massachusetts,  to  the  acre,  and  that  to  each  of  these  crops 
should  be  added  at  least  15  per  cent,  for  the  fodder  value  of 
the  yield  of  leaves,  which  were  not  included  in  these  esti- 
mates, we  have  a  demonstration  of  how  immensely  more  is 
the  nourishment  that  can  be  obtained  from  an  acre  of  root ; 
than  from  an  acre  in  hay.  Such  an  immense  increase 
in  the  nourishing  products  of  the  farm,  if  fed  on  the  pre- 
mises as  it  should  be,  unless  the  farmer  is  so  located  that 
he  can  buy  manure  cheaper  than  he  can  make  it,  means  a 
great  increase  in  the   manure  products,  and  consequently  a 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS     AND    SUGAR    BEETS. 

great  increase  in  the  crops, — so  tnat  it  has  been  wisely  said, 
root  culture  lies  at  the  basis  of  good  husbandry. 

Carrots  and  Mangolds  are  subject  to  but  few  diseases. 
In  discussing  the  nutritious  value,  chemists  differ  somewhat, 
according  as  they  measure  this  by  the  nitrogen  they  contain, 
their  per  cent,  of  dry  matter  or  sugar,  but  they  agree 
in  ranking  them  much  superior  to  the  early  varieties 
of  turnip  and  somewhat  superior  to  the  Ruta  Baga  or 
Swede  class,  particularly  when  fed  to  full  grown  cattle.  Prof. 
Johnson  ranks  Carrots  with  Cabbage  when  fed  to  oxen,  for 
nourishment,  and  experiments  appear  to  have  proved  that 
when  equal  measures  of  each  are  fed,  Mangolds  will  give  a 
greater  increase  of  milk  than  potatoes,  by  about  a  third.  For 
some  reason  not  fully  understood,  (perhaps  the  depth  they 
penetrate  the  soil  has  something  to  do  with  it ;)  Onions  will 
do  better  after  Carrots  than  after  any  other  crop,  the  yield 
being  larger,  the  bulb  handsomer,  while  the  crop  will  bottom 
down  earlier  and  better.  Unlike  Turnips  or  Swedes,  with 
high  manuring  the  crop  can  be  profitably  grown  for  years  on 
the  same  piece  of  land.  Swine  prefer  Mangolds  to  any  root 
except  the  parsnip,  and  both  in  this  country  and  in  England 
store  hogs,  weighing  from  125  lbs.  and  upwards  have  been 
carried  through  the  winter  in  fine  condition,  when  fed  whol- 
ly on  raw  Sugar  Beets  or  Mangolds.  Chemists  rank  Carrots, 
when  compared  with  oats,  with  reference  to  their  fat  and 
flesh  forming  qualities  as  1  to  5. 

Xot  only  have  roots  a  value  in  themselves  as  food,  but 
they  have  a  special  office,  taking  to  a  large  degree  the  place 
of  grass  and  preventing  tne  constipation  that  dry  feed  some- 
times causes.  While  practice  proves  that  they  should  not 
be  relied  upon  to  entirely  supersede  hay  or  grain,  still  they 
increase  the  value  of  either  of  these  to  a  large  degree  ;  and 
for  slow  working  stock  they  may  be  fed  with  profit  in  place 
of  from  a  third  to  half  the  grain  usually  given.     Carrots  add 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS     AND    SUGAR    BEETS.  5 

not  only  to  the  richness  of  the  color,  but  also  to  the  qual- 
ity of  the  milk,  while  the  flavor  of  the  butter  made  from  such 
milk  is  improved.  Carrots  fed  in  moderate  quantities  to 
horses  give  additional  gloss  to  their  hairy  coats,  and  have  not 
only  a  medicinal  value  when  given  to  such  as  have  been 
over-grained,  but  aid  them  in  digesting  grain,  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  dung  of  horses  fed  on  oats  with  Carrots,  and  that 
of  those  fed  on  oats  without  Carrots.-  When  cooked  they  are 
sometimes  fed  to  poultry,  and  either  cooked  or  raw  to  swine. 
In  the  family  economy  they  have  their  place,  particularly 
when  young  and  fresh,  while  in  Europe  they  enter  largely 
into  the  composition  of  the  well-known  vegetable  soups  of 
the  French. 

THE  CARROT. 

"The  Carrot,"  {Daucus  Caroia)  says  Burr  in  his  "Field 
and  Garden  Vegetables  of  America,"  a  book  worthy  a  place 
in  every  farmer's  library, — "in  its  cultivated  state  is  a  half- 
hardy  biennial.  It  is  indigenous  to  some  parts  of  Great  Brit- 
ian,  generally  growing  in  chalky  or  sandy  soil,  and  to  some 
extent  has  become  naturalized  in  this  country  ;  being  found 
in  gravelly  pastures  and  mowing  fields,  and  occasionally  by 
roadsides,  in  loose  places,  where  the  surface  has  been  dis- 
turbed or  removed.  In  its  native  state  the  root  is  small, 
slender  and  fibrous  or  woody,  of  no  value,  and  even  of 
questionable  properties  as  an  article  of  food." 

The    average    result  of  several  analyses  of  the  Carrot  as 
given  by  Dr.  Voelcker,  is  as  follows : — 
Water,  -  -  -  -  - 

Albuminous  Compounds,  - 

rat,  .-.-._ 

Pcctinc,  -  -  - 


I 


6  CARROTS,  MANGOLDS,  AND  SUGAR  BEETS. 

Cellular  Fiber,       -  -  -  -  -  3.5 

Sugar,  -  -  -  -  -  -      6.5 

Ash,  -..--..  >9 

THE  LOCATION  AND  SOIL. 

It  is  important  in  selecting  a  location  for  the  Carrot  bed 
that  the  land  should  be  nearly  level,  as  otherwise  the  seed 
will  be  liable  to  wash  out  after  heavy  showers,  and  the  plants 
while  young  be  either  washed  out  or  covered  with  soil  and 
killed.  The  land  should  be  clear  of  all  large  rocks,  and  as  far 
as  possible  of  all  stones  up  to  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg.  The 
presence  of  large  rocks  'in  place,'  as  the  geologists  say,  would 
interfere  with  the  continuity  of  the  rows,  while  the  loose 
stones  are  not  only  always  in  the  way  while  raking  and  plant- 
ing the  bed,  but  are  also  in  the  way  of  the  slide  or  wheel  hoes 
which  are  apt  to  knock  them  against  the  young  plants  to 
their  injury.  It  is  important  that  the  piece  of  ground  select- 
ed for  a  crop  that  will  require  so  much  manure  and  labor 
should  have  every  advantage  possible  in  its  favor ;  it  should 
not  only  be  level  and  comparatively  free  from  stones,  but  it- 
possible  should  have  been  previously  under  high  cultivation, 
that  it  may  come  to  Carrots  when  in  high  condition. 

The  best  soil,  particularly  for  the  Long  Orange  variety, 
is  a  loam  mellow  to  the  depth  of  two  feet  or  more.  On  such 
soil  the  Carrot  will  perfect  itself,  growing  straight  and  alto- 
gether beautiful  to  look  upon,  as  they  stretch  from  side  to 
side  of  the  bushel  boxes.  On  some  market  gardens  near 
■critical  markets,  farmers  find  it  for  their  interest  to  ascertain 
by  actual  experiment  on  what  part  of  their  grounds  the  root 
will  grow  longest  and  straightest,  and  when  such  plot  is  found 
make  it  a  permanent  bed.  If  the  soil  does  not  naturally 
grow  a  long  carrot  and  they  are  desired,  the  end  may  be  at- 
tained by  trenching  deep  and  adding  sand.     The  difference 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS     AND    SUGAR    BEETS.  7 

in  the  shape  of  the  Long  Orange,  when  grown  on  a  deep 
mellow  loam,  and  on  a  heavy  soil  with  a  compact  sub-soil,  is 
so  remarkable  that  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  make  an 
inexperienced  persqn  believe  each  lot  was  from  the  same 
seed, — those  grown  on  the  heavy  soil,  resting  on  a  com- 
pact sub-soil,  oftentimes  so  closely  resembling  the-  Inter- 
mediate varieties  as  not  to  be  distinguished  from  them. 
Though  the  course  is  not  on  the  whole  to  be  advised,  yet 
Carrots  can  be  raised  on  freshly  turned  sod.  Such  land  will 
be  very  free  from  weeds,  and  by  making  good  use  of  the 
wheel  harrow,  and  applying  manure  in  a  very  fine  state, 
should  the  season  be  a  moist  one,  fair  crOps  may  be  raised. 
Reclaimed  meadows  in  a  good  state  of  cultivation,  which 
are  well-drained  to  the  depth  of  thirty  inches,  will  oftentimes 
grow  crops,  large  in  bulk,  but  the  individual  rodts  are  often- 
times inclined  to  "sprangle,"  and  unless  such  meadows 
have  been  well  drained,  and  liberally  covered  with  sand  or 
gravelly  loam,  they  are  apt  to  be  spongy  and  inferior.  When 
grown  on  land  inclining  to  clay,  they  are  apt  to  be  small  and 
woody  in  structure  ;  still,  such  land,  if  made  friable  by  good 
underdraining  and  the  application  of  sand  may  be  made 
fair  carrot  ground. 

THE  MANURE  AND  ITS  APPLICATION. 

All  root  crops  delight  in  most  liberal  manuring  and  the 
highest  of  cultivation.  Carrots  are  no  exception  to  this  rule. 
With  every  crop,  other  conditions  being  equal,  it  is  tJie  la  <f 
half  of  the  manure  gives  the  profits;  and  the  more  costly  the 
cultivation  required  the  more  important  it  is  that  this  golden 
fact  be  born^  in  mind.  Though  chemical  analysis  shows  dif- 
ference in  the  composition  of  all  roots,  and  that  there  is 
therefore  an  office  for  special  manures,  yet  their  general 
composition  is  so  nearly  alike,  and  animal  manures,  most  of 


8  CARROTS,    MANGOLDS     AND    SUGAR    BEETS. 

which  contain  in  greater  or  less  proportion,  all  the  elements 
required,  are  so  difficult  to  handle  in  just  the  proportions  that 
would  be  required  from  the  chemical  standpoint,  particularly 
when  we  consider  that  soils  on  which  root  crops  are  grown 
are  usually  rich  in  manures,  varying  in  their  chemical  constit- 
uents, left  over  from  former  crops  ; — for  this  reason  I  treat  of 
manure  by  the  cord  and  with  reference  to  its  comparative 
strength,  bulk  for  bulk,  rather  than  of  its  chemical  elements. 
Eight  cords  of  good  stable  manure,  nine  cords  of  a  com- 
post made  of  one  part  night  soil  to  two  parts  muck  or  loam  ; 
twelve  cords  of  a  compost  made  of  one-third  fish  waste,  by 
which  I  mean  the  heads  and  back-bones  of  the  fisheries,  and 
two-thirds  soil ;  eight  cords  of  muscle  mud  ;  six  or  eight 
cords  of  rotten  kelp — either  of  these  applied  to  an  acre  of 
land  in  good  condition  by  previ  dus  high  cultivation  would 
be  sufficient  lor  a  good  crop  of  carrots.  Other  manures 
might  be  mentioned,  but  these  will  serve  as  a  pretty  good 
•measure  of  vakie  for  any  kind  accessible  to  farmers  in  gener- 
al To  produce  a  very  large  crop  such  as  one  would  like  to  be 
able  to  point  to  when  premium  crops  are  called  for,  add  from 
one  quarter  to  one-half  to  the  above  quantities.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  manure  is  a  matter  of  importance  ;  the  stable  ma- 
nure should  be  good ;  not  half  bedding,  not  burnt,  neither 
too  coarse  nor  too  new  ;  the  night  soil  should  have  been  well 
mixed  with  the  soil  in  the  compost  heap,  and  have  been  pitched 
over  twice  with  sufficient  intervals  between  to  allow  it  to  devel- 
op some  heat.  The  fish  waste  should  be  well  decomposed, 
so  well  that  all  but  the  bones  should  have  disappeared,  and  if 
these  be  very  dark  and  brittle  so  much  the  better.  The  mus- 
cle mud  should  be  rich  in  dead  muscles.  In  all  farming  it 
is  important  that  the  manures  applied  should  be  in  a  fine  con- 
dition mechanically,  and  particularly  is  this  true  of  root  crops. 
For  the  roots  of  all  plants  can  take  up  only  such  parts  of  the 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS     AND    SUGAR    BEETS.  g 

manure  as  are  dissolved  in  water,  and  the  finer  the   manure 
is  the  more  readily  can  water  penetrate  it. 

A  man  who  is  unfortunately  short  of  manures  can  mate- 
rially increase  the  capacity  of 'what he  has  by  working  it  over 
until  it  is  very  fine. 

When  short  of  a  supply  of  animal  manure,  guano  and 
good  phosphates,  where  the  soil  is  already  in  good  condition 
can  be  used  with  success,  provided  the  season  does  not  prove 
to  be  too  dry  a  one.  From  eight  hundred  to  a  thousand 
pounds  of  Peruvian  guano  and  from  ten  to  fifteen  hundred 
pounds  of  the  best  phosphates  should  be  used.  The  fa- 
mous fertilizer  formulas  of  Prof.  Stockbridge  have  generally 
done  so  well  I  should  be  willing  to  try  them  on  an  acre  of. 
Carrots,  were  I  short  of  other  manures. 

There  is  another  matter  concerning  our  manures  which 
requires  attention ;  if  they  are  too  fresh  or  crude  they  will  be 
apt,  if  applied  to  our  long  growing  varieties,  to  drive  the 
growth  too  much  into  the  top  of  the  Carrot,  to  the  loss  of  the 
root,  giving  us  tops  to  our  knees  with  roots  about  the  size  of 
anoe  handle.  It  is  important  therefore,  when  used  liber- 
ally, that  they  should  be  somewhat  decomposed — that  the 
mixtures  should  be  composts,  as  far  as  the  time  will  allow,  and 
not  mere  mixtures.  To  the  shorter  varieties  the  crude  ma- 
nure may  be  applied  with  a  degree  of  safety.  Here  let  me 
note  a  fact  that  I  think  is  of  general  application  in  farming, 
viz.  : — that  a  style  of  manuring  that  will  drive  tall  growing 
varieties  of  vegetable  nearly  all  to  tops  or  vine,  with  dwarf 
varieties  of  the  same  kind  will  work  admirably.  The  Pea  is 
a  very  good  illustration  ;  to  get  a  good  crop  of  Dwarf  Tom 
Thumb,  manure  liberally,  but  the  same  quantity  applied  to 
the  taller  sorts  would  drive  them  excessively  into  vine  at 
the  expense  of  the  crop. 

Don't  make  your  compost  heap  on  the  ground  where 
the  crop  is  to  grow,  for  the  result  will  be  no  crop  where  the 


lQ  CARROTS,    MANGOLDS     AND    SUGAR    BEETS. 

heap  stands.  For  the  same  reason  it  is  bad  policy  to  cart  out 
any  strong  manure  to  stand  on  the  land  in  heaps,  no  matter 
how  small,  over  winter.  There  will  be  nothing  lost  by  spread- 
ing the  manure  over  the  surface  before  the  ground  is  frozen. 
In  getting  it  into  the  soil,  keep  it  as  near  the  surface  as  possi- 
ble without  its  interfering  with  the  planting  of  the  seed,  bear- 
ing in  mind  the  nitrogen,  that  element  in  manures,  about  the 
loss  of  which  by  evaporation  there  is  much  uncalled  for  anxi- 
ety tends  to  work  down  into  the  soil.  If  the  manure  is  coarse 
it  may  be  applied  to  the  surface  in  the  Fall  and  be  deeply 
ploughed  in,  and  in  the  Spring  again  brought  to  the  sur- 
face by  ploughing  equally  deep,  having  meanwhile  received 
the  benefits  of  frost  and  moisture. 

In  applying  guano  or  the  phosphates,  keep  them  near 
the  surface,  scattering  them  broadcast  and  raking  or  harrow- 
ing in.  It  is  best  not  to  apply  either  of  these  all  at  once, — 
particularly  is  this  true  of  guano.  Apply  about  half  at  the 
time  of  sowing,  and  the  remainder  when  the  crop  is  about 
one-third  grown — following  it  with  the  slide  hoe,  which  will 
tend  to  work  it  in  just  under  the  surface.  In  applying  guano 
and  all  similar  fine  manures  in  the  Spring  time,  it  is  well  to 
do  so  early  in  the  day,  as  winds  are  apt  to  rise  as  the  day  ad- 
vances, which  seriously  interfere  with  the  economical  appli- 
cation and  even  distribution.  Both  phosphates  and  guano 
tend  to  hasten  the  maturity  of  the  crops  to  which  they  are 
applied.  There  is  one  condition  that  has  a  very  important 
bearing  on  the  cost  of  Carrots  and  all  roots,  viz. : — that 
both  the  ground  and  manure  should  be  as  free  from  all  weed 
seed  as  possible.  For  this  reason  ground  recently  from  the 
sod,  the  third  year,  provided  it  lias  been  kept  under  a  high 
state  of  cultivation,  and  such  manures  which  from  their  very 
nature  must  be  comparatively  free  from  the  seed  of  weeds, 
such  as  fish  composts,  night  soil,  or  barn  manure  a  year  old, 
are  to  be  ^referred. 


CARROTS,  MANGOLDS  AND  SUGAR  BEETS.  II 

Dr.  Voelcker  gives  the  result  of  10  analyses  of  the 
ashes  of  the  root  and  2  of  the  ashes  of  the  leaves  of  the 
Carrot,  ancj  from  these  deduces  the  following  as  the  num- 
ber of  pounds  of  mineral  matter  taken  from  an  acre  of  land, 
by  10  tons  of  roots  and  4  tons  of  tops. 

Potash,  Soda,  Lime,         Phosphoric  Acid, 

1 16  lbs  86  lbs.         101  lbs.  31  lbs. 

Sulphuric  Acid,  Chlorine, 

34  lbs.  31  lbs. 

To  those  who  desire  to  experiment  with  mineral  manures 
this  table  will  be  interesting  as  showing  the  kinds  and  propor- 
tion of  each  needed.  The  potash  is  found  iif  unleeched  ashes, 
at  the  rate  of  4  or  5  pounds  to  the  bushel ;  or  in  the  German 
Potash  salts ;  the  soda  and  chlorine  in  common  salt,  (chlo- 
ride of  sodium)  ;  lime  in  the  common  lime  of  the  mason, 
the  Phosphoric  acid  in  the  phosphates  offered  in  the  markets, 
and  the  Sulphuric  acid  in  that  directly  or  in  common  finely 
ground  plaster,  known  by  chemists  as  Sulphate  of  Lime. 

I  shall  have  occasion  to  present  some  very  valuable  sug- 
gestions of  the  learned  Professor,  under  the  head  of  "The 
Manure"  in  my  article  on  Mangolds,  to  which  they  more  es- 
pecially apply. 

The  greatest  single  item  in  the  cost  of  any  crop  is 
the  manure,  but  this  is  an  exceedingly  varying  element. 
Farmers  near  cities,  and  particularly  if  they  also  reside 
near  the  sea-coast,  as  an  off-set  for  the  greater  cost  of  farm- 
ing-land and  expenses  of  living,  have  the  advantages  of  a  city 
market  and  special  facilities  for  collecting  manures,  at  a  cost 
to  them,  much  below  the  standard  value  of  stable  manure. 
Night  soil  to-  almost  an  unlimited  extent,  can  be  obtained  for 
the  cost  of  collecting  it,  while  the  waste  material  of  the  fish- 
eries, Kelp,  Rock  Weed,  Muscle  Mud,  Glue  Waste,  Sugar 
House  Waste,  and  the  products  of  the  distilleries,  these  and 


12  CARROTS,    MANGOLDS     AND    SUGAR    BEETS, 

other  rich  fertilizers  can  be  procured  at  so  low  a  figure,  in 
proportion  to  their  value,  that  root  crops  can  be  raised  con- 
siderably cheaper  than  in  farming  districts  not  so  favored. 
Many  a  man  can  be  found  in  these  favored  districts  who 
thinks  he  is  making  a  good  business  at  farming,  yet  could  he 
but  sell  the  manure  he  gathers  so  cheaply,  at  its  market  value, 
barn  manure  being  the  standard,  he  would  make  money  by 
doing  so  and  folding  his  arms  the  rest  of  the  year.  The  fact  is 
he  is  really  losing  money  at  farming  ;  but  through  his  crops 
he  is  selling  what  cost  him  but  a  trifle,  at  a  price,  indeed, 
below  its  real  value,  but  still  so  far  in  advance  of  cost  as  to 
leave  a  profit.  Such  a  man  does  wisely  in  the  course  he 
pursues  though  he  makes  a  mistake  in  the  debtor  and  cred- 
itor side  of  the  account,  for  it  is  most  decidedly  wiser  to  be 
at  work  than  idle,  though  the  result  makes  no  difference  in 
the  dollars  in  a  man's  pocket. 

PREPARING  THE  BED. 

The  great  object  here  should  be  to  get  the  soil  thorough- 
ly fine  that  the  small,  thread-like  fibers,  and  the  roots  them- 
selves, may  waste  the  least  possible  vital  power  in  permeating 
the  earth  in  search  of  food,  or  in  pushing  downwards.  The 
vitality  wasted  in  this  way  is  just  so  much  taken  from  growth, 
and  may  make  the  sole  difference  between  a  good  crop  and 
a  poor  one.  If  it  is  necessary  that  the  first  ploughing  should 
be  a  very  deep  one,  better  apply  the  manure,  (as  previously 
stated,  the  finer  mechanical  condition  this  is  in  the  better) 
afterwards.  Should  the  manure  be  to  any  degree  coarse  after 
spreading,  run  the  brush  or  wheel  harrow  over  it,  one  or 
both.  This  will  also  break  up  the  clods  and  fine  up  the  soil 
and  incorporate  the  manure  with  it.  If  still  at  all  lumpy,  fol- 
low with  a  plank  drag.  Next  plow  shallow  a  few  furrows,  and 
Have  men,  with  wooden-toothed  hand  rakes,  rake  at  right  an- 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS     AND    SUGAR    BEETS.  1 3 

gles,  pulling  all  coarse  stones  and  lumps  of  earth  and  manure 
into  the  last  furrow  made.  In  brief,  proceed  to  make  as  fine 
a  seed  bed  as  for  onions. 

If  any  one,  depending  on  the  apparent  fineness  of  the 
surface,  concludes  to  dispense  with  the  final  raking  and  let 
the  work  of  the  brush  harrow  answer,  he  will  be  apt  to  re- 
pent it  before  the  season  closes ;  should  he  try  it  let  him  be 
sure  to  double  the  quantity  of  seed  planted  in  that  portion 
of  the  land  so  treated.  If  the  bed  has  its  first  ploughing 
early  in  the  season,  much  of  the  weed  seed  will  germinate 
before  planting  time  and  an  occasional  use  of  the  cultivator 
will  destroy  many  of  the  pests, 

WHEN  TO  PLANT. 

Some  of  our  best  farmers  advocate  planting  about  the 
middle  of  May,  others  equally  successful  in  root  culture 
claim  that  the  middle  of  June  is  the  best  time.  There  are 
arguments  for  both  early  and.  late  planting.  In  New  Eng- 
land we  usually  have  the  weather  sufficiently  moist  towards 
the  close  of  May  to  insure  the  germination  of  the  seed  and 
protect  the  plants  when  they  break  ground,  from  "sun-scald." 
Those  planted  as  late  as  the  middle  of  June  are  more  liable 
to  be  so  affected  by  the  dry  weather  usual  at  that  period  as 
not  to  vegetate  as  well ;  and  should  the  heat  be  very  great 
just  after  they  push  through  the  ground,  sometimes  in  a  sin- 
gle day  nearly  the  entire  crop  will  disappear  by  "sun-scald." 
But  on  the  other  hand,  by  planting  late  we  about  get  rid  of 
one  weeding,  assuming  that  the  ground  is  stirred  by  the  cul- 
tivator occasionally,  up  to  the  time  of  planting.  Again,  this 
brings  the  crop  in  full  vigor  in  October,  the  month  of  all 
others  most  favorable  for  the  growth  of  the  root,  and  the 
Carrots  being  dug  while  the  tops  are  in  fair  growing  condi- 
tion, keep  better  than  when  dug  fully  ripe.      The  argument 


14  CARROTS,  MANGOLDS  AND  SUGAR  BEETS. 

for  late  planting  holds  especially  good  for  the  Short  Horn  va- 
rieties, as  these  require  a  shorter  time  to  mature  than  the  long 
kinds.  If  the  crop  is  planted  too  early,  sometimes  the  roots 
having  matured,  will  attempt  to  push  seed  shoots  ;  when  this 
is  so  they  will  be  found  woody  in  their  structure,  with  num- 
berless thread-like  roots  while  their  quality  and  keeping  pro- 
perties are  greatly  injured.  This  crop  on  rich  land  is  some- 
times planted  as  late  as  the  first  week  in  July,  and  with  great 
success,  should  the  Fall  prove  exceptionably  mild,  yet,  as  a 
rule,  I  would  not  recommend  planting  later  than  the  mid- 
dle of  June.  If  it  so  happens,  from  press  of  work,  or  the 
dry  weather,  the  farmer  has  to  plant  later  than  this,  then  by 
all  means  let  him  confine  himself  to  the  earlier  varieties. 

THE  SEED  AND  THE  PLANTING  OF  IT. 

To  grow  seed,  medium-sized  roots  should  be  selected, 
that  are  well-grown,  straight  and  symmetrical,  of  a  rich,  dark 
orange  color,  with  a  small,  compact  top.  Plant  in  rows  three 
and  a  half  feet  apart  and  fifteen  inches  in  the  row,  the 
crowns  being  on  a  level  with  the  surface.  If  the  roots  are 
long  they  may  be  laid  slanting  in  the  furrows.  The  best  seed 
will  be  from  the  two  first  cuttings,  which  will  come  from  the 
center  of  the  main  stock  and  of  each  side  shoot. 

The  seed  grows  with  a  covering  of  small,  short,  stiff  hairs, 
which  makes  them  adhere  together  ;  these  must  be  very  thor- 
oughly removed  Defore  the  seed  can  be  relied  upon  to  flow 
freely  from  the  machine.  Much  of  foreign  grown  seed  reache 3 
this  country  not  properly  cleaned.  To  remove  this  furze, 
either  thrash  the  seed  with  the  flail  very  thoroughly,  when  the 
weather  is  quite  cold  and  dry,  or  warm  the  seed  slightly  and 
rub  it  with  the  hand  against  the  wires  of  a  sieve,  of  a  right 
degree  of  fineness  to  let  the  hairs  fall  through.  Either  win- 
now, or  sink  in  water,  to  remove  all  impurities.    If  sunk,  be 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS     AND    SUGAR    BEETS.  1 5 

careful  to  dry  the  seed  at  a  very  moderate  temperature  ;  rub- 
bing with  plaster,  charcoal  or  earth  dust  will  absorb  what  mois- 
ture may  remain  when  nearly  dry.  As  Carrot  seed  vegetates 
somewhat  slowly  and  the  plants  are  quite  small  when  they 
first  appear,  weeds  are  apt  to  get  the  start  of  them  before  the 
rows  can  be  seen  with  sufficient  distinctness  to  make  it  safe 
to  use  the  slide  hoe.  For  this  reason  many  farmers  practice 
soaking  the  seed  in  water  and  keeping  it  at  a  temperature 
that  will  nearly  develop  the  sprout,  before  planting.  This 
may  be  done  by  soaking  the  seed  from  36  to  48  hours  in 
milk  warm,  rather  strong  manure  water,  then  removing  it  to 
where  the  air  is  of  about  the  same  temperature.  Stir  it  slight- 
ly for  a  few  days,  and  finally  dry  it  sufficiently  to  drop  freely 
from  the  machine  by  adding  plaster,  charcoal  or  dust.  Cam- 
phor has  a  wonderful  effect  in  stimulating  the  vitality  of  seed, 
and  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  it  to  the  manure 
water  would  doubtless  be  of  advantage.  This  process  should 
not  be  carried  so  far  as  to  develop  the  sprout.  Should  the 
surface  of  the  ground  be  very  dry  when  the  seed  is  sown, 
this  soaking  process  may  be  fatal,  for  if  the  germ  is  once 
started  it  will  not  live  in  a  dormant  state ;  it  must  either 
grow  or  die  :  whereas,  seed  that  have  not  been  soaked  will 
vegetate  after  rains  wet  the  dry  surface.  Be  sure  that  the 
seed  planter  has  a  good  roller  attached  to  it,  and  not  a 
mere  coverer,  as  this  will  help  confine  the  moisture  and  thus 
materially  aid  in  developing  the  seed. 

QUANTITY  TO  THE  ACRE. 

Tables  vary  greatly,  some  advising  as  high  as  four  pounds 
to  the  acre.  If  the  design  is  to  raise  small-sized  roots  for 
early  marketing,  possibly  this  might  not  be  an  excess  of  seed, 
but  to  advise  so  heavy  seeding  for  ordinary  field  crops,  means 
that  much  of  the  seed  is  poor  trash,  probably  old  and  worth- 
less, and  put  in  as  a  make-weight. 


1 6  CARROTS,    MANGOLDS     AND    SUGAR   BEETS. 

Some  years  ago  a  party  wrote  me,  offering  a  variety  0{ 
garden  seed  at  a  very  low  figure,  and  stated  that  it  was  of  his 
own  raising.  As  it  was  a  kind  that  I  was  in  the  habit  of  rais- 
ing, I  had  the  curiosity  to  write  and  ask  how  he  could  afford 
to  raise  it  at  such  a  price.  He  replied  that  it  was  of  his  own 
growing,  but  so  old  as  to  be  good  for  nothing,  and  therefore 
he  sold  it  to  seedsmen  at  a  very  low  figure,  to  mix  with  their 
good  seed  to  help  make  weight!  When  four  pounds  of  Carrot 
seed  are  advised  to  the  acre,  for  afield  crop,  I  think  that  some 
of  this  kind  of  seed  must  somehow  have  got  into  the  mixture. 
With  everything  favoring,  and  the  farmer  by  experience  having 
his  seed  sower  under  perfect  control,  rather  less  than  a  pound 
of  seed  will  be  sufficient  for  an  acre.  The  great  object  to 
aim  at  is,  while  having  the  plants  thick  enough,  not  to  have 
much  of  any  thinning  to  do,  as  it  costs  about  as  much  to  thin 
a  crop  as  it  does  to  weed  it,  with  the  drawback  that  the  plants 
left  in  the  ground  are  more  or  less  started,  and  so  put  back 
by  the  thinning.  As  a  general  rule  I  would  advise  one  and 
one-half  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre,  and  this  the  farmer  can 
reduce  in  proportion  as  he  is  favored  by  circumstances  and 
advances  in  experience. 

Twelve  inches  is  a  sufficient  distance  between  the  rows 
of  the  two  small,  early  varieties,  and  fifteen  between  the  rows 
of  all  other  sorts.  With  the  greatest  of  care  the  seed  will 
not  come  up  with  mathematical  precision.  Some  advocate 
leaving  a  plant  to  about  every  inch  of  row ;  others,  to  thin  to 
four  inches  apart.  Carrots  are  somewhat  like  Onions  in  their 
aptitude  to  grow  to  a  good  size  when  crowded,  pushing  out 
either  side  of  the  rows,  and  at  times  crops  will  give  great 
bulk  when  the  plants  are  nearer  each  other  than  four  inches, 
still,  as  a  rule  I  advise  thinning  to  near  this  distance,  leaving 
them  thicker  near  vacant  places. 


CARROTS,  MANGOLDS  AND  SUGAR  BEETS.  1 7 

VARIETIES,  AND  WHAT  KINDS  TO  GROW. 

Foreign  catalogues  give  lists  of  about  two  dozen  varie- 
ties, which  differ  in  earliness,  size,  color,  form,  termination  of 
root,  characteristic  of  growing  entirely  under  or  partly  above 
ground,  and  in  the  size  of  the  core  or  heart.  In  foreign  cat- 
alogues, what  we  call  "Orange,"  are  known  as  "Red"  Car- 
rots. From  a  test  of  these  varieties  I  have  thus  far  foun  1 
nothing  worthy  of  being  added  to  the  kinds  already  grown  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent  in  the  United  States.  The  yellow- 
fleshed  sorts  are  repudiated  in  New  England  by  general  con- 
sent; yet  the  Yellow  Belgian,  on  a  limited  trial  has  prove! 
with  me,  to  be  an  exceptionably  good  keeper-  The  Purple 
or  Blood-Red  is  of  a  deep  purple  color,  a  poor  cropper  and 
by  no  means  attractive  to  the  eye.  The  remaining  varieties 
may  be  classed  as  follows  : — Early,  middling  early  and  late. 
The  first  class  is  made  up  of  the  Early  Very  Short  Scarlet, 
and  the  Early  Scarlet  Horn.  The  second  class,  of  all  the 
half-long  or  short  horn  varieties,  and  the  third,  of  the  long 
varieties,  such  as  Long  Orange,  Belgian  and  Altringham 
sorts. 

In  addition  to  about  one-half  of  these  foreign  varieties, 
cultivated  more  or  less  generally  in  this  country,  there  are 
several  kinds  catalogued  by  seedsmen,  all  of  which  are  but 
improved  strains  made  by  careful  selections,  through  a  series 
of  years,  from  what  was  originally  imported  stock.  These 
strains  usually  bear  the  name  of  some  person.  A  brief  dis- 
cussion of  the  more  valuable  varieties  will  now  be  in  order. 
Here  I  will  lay  down  three  general  facts,  viz. : — ist,  that  of 
the  various  orange  colored  varieties,  the  shorter  growing  kinds 
are,  as  a  rule,  the  darker  colored  and  sweeter  flavored.  2d, 
that  the  proportion  of  dark,  orange-colored  roots  in  any 
crop,  while  it  will  depend  largely  on  the  care  that  has  been 
used  in  the  selection  of  seed  stock  for  a  series  of  years,  does 


iS 


CARROTS,  MANGOLDS  AND  SUGAR  BEETS. 


not  turn  wholly  on  this,  but  soil,  season  or  manure,  one  or  all 
have  some  influence  in  this  direction.  3d,  that  the  fact  that 
more  or  less  of  the  Carrots  tend  to  push  seed  shoots  the  first 
year,  while  with  the  long  varieties  it  may  prove  that  the  seed 
has  been  allowed  to  mix  with  the  wild  varieties,  yet  the  prob- 
ability, (marked  cases  excepted,)  is  decidedly  the  other 
way ;  while  with  the  short  horn  varieties  this  tendency  to 
push  seed  shoots  the  first  season,  so  as  to  make  something 
of  a  show  when  an  acre  is  glanced  over,  is  quite  a  common 
characteristic  with  seed  of  the  very  purest  strain. 


EARLY  VERY 
SHORT  SCAKLET. 


EARLY  SHOkT 
SCARLET. 


£KOKT  HOk'. 


_ONG  OR.-  >"GL. 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS     AND   SUGAR    BEETS.  1 9 

Early  Yery  Short  Scarlet,  (see  engraving.) 

Early  Short  Scarlet  Horn,  (see  engraving.)  These 
two  varieties  are  the  shortest  grown  and  are  raised  at  times 
in  forcing  beds,  for  an  early  market,  the  former  very  gener- 
ally so.  They  are  of  a  very  rich  orange  color,  fine-grained, 
sweet,  and  of  excellent  flavor,  heading  the  list  for  quality. 
Their  rich  color  makes  them  valuable  above  all  other  kinds 
for  coloring  butter.  Though  quite  short,  yet  the  Early  Short 
Scarlet  Horn  can  be  grown  to  yield  a  great  bulk  ot  roots,  from 
the  fact  that  from  the  smallness  of  their  tops  the  roots  can  be 
grown  very  thick,  two  or  three  abreast  all  along  the  rows. 
When  the  small,  handy  size  of  this  variety  is  considered  in 
connection  with  the  superior  quality,  it  stands  foremost  as  a 
table  Carrot,  and  I  therefore  recommend  it  in  preference  to 
all  others  for  family  use. 

Short  Horn.  (See  engraving.)  This  variety,  interme- 
diate between  the  Early  Forcing  and  Long  Orange,  with  but 
slight  variations  in  form,  is  shown  under  various  names,  as 
Intermediate,  Nantes,  Half  Long,  James'  Improved,  Stump- 
Rooted,  &c.  It  is  characterized  by  a  darker  color  than  the 
average  of  the  Long  Orange,  finer  grain,  and  a  sweeter  and 
richer  flavor.  In  part  from  the  more  solid  structure  of  the 
Carrot,  and  in  part  from  its  better  stowage,  thirty-six  meas- 
ured bushels  of  this  variety  make  a  ton,  while  of  the  larger 
varieties  forty  bushels  are  required.  The  best  strain  of  this 
variety  is  doubtless  the  kind  known  as  the  "Danvers"  Carrot. 

Danvers  Carrot.  In  the  town  of  Danvers,  Mass., 
the  raising  of  Carrots  on  an  extensive  scale,  has  for  years 
been  quite  a  business — the  farmers  finding  a  large  market 
in  the  neighboring  cities  of  Salem,  Lynn  and  Boston.  After 
years  of  experimenting  they  settled  upon  a  variety  which  orig- 
inated among  them  (as  did  the  Danvers  Onion)  known  in 
theii  locality  as  the  "Danvers  Carrot."      It  is  in  form  about 


20 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS     AND   SUGAR    BEETS. 


midway  between  the  Long  Orange  and  Short  Horn  class, 
growing  very  generally  with  a  stump  root.  The  great  problem 
in  Carrot  growing  is  to  get  the  greatest  bulk  with  the  smallest 
length  of  root,  and  this  is  what  the  Danvers  growers  have 
attained  in  their  Carrot.  Under  their  cultivation  they  raise 
from  twenty  to  forty  tons  to  the  acre.  This  Carrot  is  of  a 
rich,  dark  orange  in  color,  very  smooth  and  handsome,  and 
from  its  length,  is  easier  to  dig  than  the  Long  Orange.  It  is 
a  first-class  Carrot  for  any  soil. 

Long  Orange,  or  Long  Surry.  This  is  a  standard 
--ariety,  and  in  its  various  strains  is  doubtless  more  generally 
grown  than  any  other  kind.  The  chief  objection  to  it  is  the 
depth  to  which  k  penetrates  the  ground,  and  hence  the  extra 


3r,~^'fe 


DANVERS  CARROT     ALTRINGHAM.  IMPROVED  LONG  ORANG-u 


tARROTS,  MANGOLDS  AND  SUGAR  BEETS. 


21 


work  of  digging  it ;  while  the  end  of  the  root  which  causes 
the  extra  work  is  of  inferior  quality  when  compared  with 
-he  body,  differing  in  this  respect  from  the  shorter  varieties, 
which  are  of  the  same  quality 
throughout.  The  heart  is  larger  in 
proportion  than  in  the  shorter  vari- 
eties, which  is  considered  an  objec- 
tion. The  keeping  properties  are 
excellent,  and  in  this  respect  it  is 
superior  to  the  earlier  kinds.  On 
light  soil  the  roots  grow  long,  straight 
and  make  a  fine  show  in  the  market. 

Altringham.    This  is  a  Carrot  of 

excellent  quality  for  the  table,  the 
flesh  being  of  a  rich  orange  color, 
crisp  and  sweet,  but  as  a  cropper  it 
is  inferior  to  the  Intermediate  or 
Long  Orange  varieties,  and  hence  is 
but  little  cultivated. 

Large  White  Belgian,  This  is 
the  largest  of  all  varieties  and  will 
yield  at  least  a  quarter  more  than 
any  other  sort.  The  roots  grow  sev- 
eral inches  out  of  ground,  and  all 
can  be  readily  pulled  by  the  hand. 
Analysis  shows  that  it  is  nearly  as 
sweet  as  the  Mangold  Wurtzel,  rather 
sweeter  than  the  Swede  Turnip,  and 
about  two  thirds  as  sweet  as  the  Su- 
gar Beet.  The  two  objections  to  it 
large  white  Belgian  are  its  color  and  its  keeping  proper- 
ties ;  it  being  rather  a  poor  keeper,  while  the  color  has 
made  it  a  carrot  for  horses  rather  than  cows.  If  farmers 
have  but  a  small  quantity  of  manure,  the  White  Belgian  is 
?,  good  variety  for  them  to  raise  for  feeding  early  in  the  winter. 


22  CARROTS,    MANGOLDS     AND    SUGAR    BEETS. 

THE    CULTIVATION,    AND    THE    IMPLEMENTS 
NEEDED. 

Just  as  soon  as  the  young  plants  can  be  detected  break- 
ing ground,  the  prudent  farmer  will  push  the  slide  hoe,  and 
have  his  boy  weeders  follow  immediately  after  it  on  hands 
and  knees.  Boys  that  have  had  a  little  experience,  with  their 
nimble  fingers  can  do  more  work  than  men,  while  their  wages 
are  only  about  half  as  much.  On  the  sea-coast  we  hire  boys 
who  make  a  business  of  weeding,  for  from  seventy-five  cents 
to  a  dollar  a  day.  The  one  great  danger  in  hiring  boys,  is  that 
careless  ones  are  apt  to  break  off  the  weeds  instead  of  pull- 
ing them  up  by  the  roots.  To  ascertain  their  comparative 
faithfulness,  it  is  well  to  quietly  mark  a  few  rows  of  the  diff- 
erent weeders,  at  their  first  weeding,  and  by  the  time  for  the 
second  weeding  the  difference  between  a  good  and  a  bad 
boy  will  be  very  plainly  visible. 

Don't  accept  that  theory  of  the  shiftless  man,  that  it  is 
well  to  have  the  weeds  grow  pretty  tall  before  the  first  weed- 
ing, that  the  plants  may  be  protected  from  the  sun.  I  have 
noticed  that  oftentimes  those  who  act  on  this  theory  give 
over  their  weeding,  and  plough  up  the  bed  before  they  have 
half  finished  it.  Promptness  in  the  first  hoeing  and  weed- 
ing is  exceedingly  important  in  the  management  of  all  root 
crops,  and  it  is  where  the  great  mistake  is  apt  to  be  made  in 
their  cultivation. 

There  are  a  few  implements  that  are  specially  needed  in 
the     cultiva- 
tion   of    root 

crops,  and  of  *a=u^Ss^^^-/y 

these     every 


wis-     iarmer 

will    rret    the  slide  hoe, 


CARROTS,  MANGOLDS  AND  SUGAR  BEETS. 


23 


very  best  attainable.  These  implements  are  the  Seed  Sower, 
the  Hand  Weeder,  the  Slide  Hoe,  the  common  Wheel  Hoe, 
and  one  for  weeding  both  sides  of  a  row  at  the  same  time.  Of 
these  there  are  a  great  many  varieties,  each  of  which  are  more 
or  less  popular  among  a  class  of  growers.  The  engravings 
illustrate  such  as  are  in  use  in  my  own  section  of  country, 
where  root  culture  forms  a  very  important  part  of  the  agri- 
culture of  farmers.  Both  the  slide  and  the  wheel  hoe,  for 
rapid  work,  far  surpass  the  common  hand  hoe,  while  they 
cut  up  the 
weeds  equally 
clear.  The 
wheel  hoe  is 
used  until  the 
tops  of  the 
crops  become 
so  large  as  to 
be  in  the  way,  wheel  kce 

when  the  slide  hoe  takes  its  place.  Each  should  be  two 
inches  narrower  than  the  space  between  the  rows.  A 
slide  hoe  is  an  amazing  handy  implement  about  a  farm  for 
many  uses  other  than  between  the  rows  of  root  crops.  A 
new  class  of  inplements  lave  been  introduced  within  a  few 
years  which,  to  a  degree,  supersede  the  use  of  the  common 

wheel  or  slide  hoc. 
though  there  is  yet  a 
valuable  sphere  for 
each  of  them  ;  I  refer 
to  the  weedcrs  which 
cut  each  Fide  of  the 
Goodwin's  wheel  hoe.  row  at  tb.c  same  time 

I  have  tested  every  variety  of  these  and  have  thus  far  found 
none  do  such  good,  practical  work  as  the  homeliest  look- 
ing one  of  them  all,  viz. :  the  Goodwin  wheel  hoe.      These 


24 


CARROTS,  MANGOLDS  AND  SUGAR  BEETS. 


.^oe.)  which  take  each  side  of  the  row  at  once  cannot  safely 
be  made  to  go  over  the  ground  as  fast  as  those  designed  for 
use  between  the  rows,  but  working  close  home  to  the  grow- 
ing crop,  they  save   a  large  portion  of  the  cost  of  hard  weed 
fng.      Of    seed    drills 
there    are  a  dozen   or 
more    in    the   market, 
several  of  which  I  have 
used  on  my  farms.       I 
prefer  Matthew's   over 
all    others.        Among 
other     advantages     it     ^^ 
can  be  relied  upon  to  Matthews  seed  sower. 

drop  almost  any  variety  of  small  seed,  while  it  is  a  good  cov- 
»jrer,  and   having  a  roller  attached,  it  packs  the  earth  over 

the  seed,  which,  as 
every  farmer  knows, 
tends  to  keep  the 
moisture  in  and  thus 
noyes'  weeder  hastens   their    germi- 

nation. The  hand  weeder  is  an  excellent  little  implement 
to  facilitate  the  laborious  work  of  weeding,  especially  when 
the  surface  is  baked  and  therefore  rather  hard  on  the  fingers. 

GATHERING  AND  STORING  THE  CROP. 

One  of  the  greatest  outlays  attending  the  raising  of  Car- 
rots is  in  the  gathering  and  topping  of  the  crop.  The  com- 
mon process  of  digging  with  a  fork  and  throwing  into  piles  tc 
be  afterwards  topped  is  laborious  and  costh*.  The  labor  and 
consequent  cost  may  be  greatly  lessened  by  first  cutting  off 
the  tops  by  a  sharp  shovel,  spade  or  common  hoe,  or  a  slide 
hoe  which  has  been  weighted  by  a  piece  of  lead  pipe,  or 
some  similar  heavy  article,  slid  down  the  handle  and  fastened 
where  that  unites  with  the  hoe.     Should  a  slice  be  taken  off 


CARROTS,    IVi^NGOLDS     AND    SUGAR    BEETS.  25 

the  tops  of  the  roots  it  will  do  no  harm,  as  Carrots  differ  in 
this  respect  from  other  roots,  in  that,  when  the  tops  are  cut 
they  are  not  apt  to  rot ;  indeed,  some  practice  cutting  off 
a  slice  of  the  root  when  topping,  to  keep  them  from  sprout- 
ing so  readily  when  stored. 

Let  the  crop  remain  out  as  late  as  it  can  be  risked  with- 
out freezing ;  and  it  they  are  in  good  growing  condition 
this  will  be  well  towards  November,  in  the  latitude  of  cen- 
tral New  England,  and  even  into  the  first  week  of  that 
month  in  the  milder  temperature  of  the  sea-coast.  Roots 
not  fully  matured  will  keep  better  than  those  fully  ripe  when 
dug,  on  the  principle  that  the  varieties  of  apples  we  call  "win- 
ter" apples  are  simply  those  kinds  that  do  not  ripen  on  the 
tree, — they  are  not  winter  apples,  because  they  are  Baldwins, 
or  Greenings,  for  these  same  kinds  in  the  South  where  the 
ripening  season  is  longer,  are  Fall  apples.  If  the  carrots  have 
been  planted  too  early  they  will  ripen  before  digging  and  be 
apt  to  prove  poor  keepers,  besides  losing  the  advantage  of 
October  weather  which  is  the  carrot  month,  doing  more  for 
the  weight  of  the  late  planted  crop  than  all  the  season  be- 
sides. 

Rake  the  tops  off  the  bed  but  do  not  waste  them  for 
they  are  highly  relished  by  animals,  and  if  the  carrots  are 
harvested  when  they  ought  to  be,  to  keep  well,  that  is,  when 
in  good  growing  condition,  there  will  be  a  great  weight  of 
tops,  sometimes  as  high  as  a  quarter  of  the  weight  of  roots  ; 
and  this  mass  of  green  fodder,  coming  at  a  time  when  the 
fields  are  usually  bare  of  grasses,  will  prove  very  valuable  and 
acceptable  food  for  the  cows.  The  common  way  of  gather- 
ing the  crop,  by  loosening  with  spades  or  forks  and  then 
pulling  out  by  the  tops,  throwing  into  heaps  or  scattering 
over  the  ground  and  afterwards  topping  with  a  knife,  is  a 
long  and  costly  job.  An  improvement  on  digging  is  to  run 
a  plough  close  to  the  row  and  then  pull  out  as  many  as  pos- 


26  CARROTS,    MANGOLDS     AND    SUGAR    BEETS. 

sible  by  hand  and  dig  up  the  remainder.  Still  a  better  course 
particularly  when  the  Danvers  variety  is  grown,  is,  beginning 
in  the  middle  of  the  piece,  to  run  a  subsoil  plough  close 
home  to  the  roots,  when,  if  run  sufficiently  deep  it  will  lift 
the  carrots  a  little  out  of  the  ground.  Follow  with  forks  or 
hoes,  and  draw  the  roots  inward  on  the  ploughed  portion,  so 
far  as  to  give  room  for  the  horse  to  walk.  Let  the  roots  re- 
main a  few  hours  scattered  over  the  surface,  when  in  picking 
up  and  tossing  them  into  carts  or  baskets,  any  earth  adhering 
will  be  jarred  off.  In  storing,  one  fact  must  be  borne  in 
mind ;  that  carrots  will  heat,  sprout  and  rot,  under  circum- 
stances in  which  Mangolds  would  keep  sound  and  uninjured. 
I  have  several  times  lost  quantities  when  buried  in  the  ground 
where  Mangolds  and  common  table  Beets,  under  precisely 
the  same  conditions,  have  kept  perfectly  sound.  If  the  crop 
is  to  be  fed  at  once,  they  may  be  dumped  into  the  cellar  or 
barn  floor  in  the  most  expeditious  way  without  reference  to 
the  depth  of  the  heap  ;  but  if  to  be  fed  into  the  winter,  then 
all  depth  of  the  heap  above  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet 
means  a  proportionate  increase  of  danger  of  heating,  sprout- 
ing an,d  rotting,  and  so  much  greater  care  to  air  the  cellar  in 
cool,  dry  weather.  I  need  hardly  state  that  cellars  for  keep- 
ing carrots  and  all  roots  should  be  free  from  standing  water, 
and  as  cool  as  possible  without  actually  freezing.  If  the 
bottom  is  damp,  then  put  down  a  rough  flooring.  When  the 
roots  are  large  they  will  keep  sufficiently  better  to  pay  for  the 
extra  trouble,  if  they  are  piled  "heads  and  points"  to  the 
height  of  two  and  a  half  feet,  with  a  slight  space  for  air  be- 
tween the  piles.  If  there  are  not  cellar  conveniences  for 
storing  the  entire  crop,  with  a  good  protection  of  hay  under 
and  around  them,  a  few  tons  may  be  stored,  for  early  feeding, 
in  the  barn,  provided  it  is  a  warm  one. 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS     AND    SUGAR    BEETS.  27 

RAISING  CARROTS  WITH  ONIONS. 

I  transfer  from  my  Treatise  on  Onions,  a  paragraph  rel- 
ative to  growing  carrots  with  onions. 

The  plan  of  raising  carrots  with  onions  is  considered  a 
great  improvement  by  many  who  have  adopted  it,  as  the  yield 
of  carrots  is  thought  to  be  clear  gain,  diminishing  but  little  or 
none  the  yield  of  onions.  Carrots  are  planted  in  two  ways  ; 
one  by  sowing  them  in  drills  between  every  other  row  of 
onions,  and  the  other,  which  is  considered  an  improvement, 
called  the  Long  Island  plan,  by  planting  the  onions  in  hills 
from  seven  to  eight  inches  from  center  to  center,  dropping  a 
number  of  seed  in  each  hill,  and  from  the  first  to  the  twelfth 
of  June  planting  the  carrot  seed,  usually  by  hand,  between 
these  hills  in  two  rows,  then  skipping  one,  and  thus  on 
through  the  piece.  The  onions,  as  they  are  pulled  are  thrown 
into  every  third  row,  the  carrots  being  left  to  mature.  By 
this  method  from 'two  to  six  hundred  bushels  of  carrots  are 
raised  per  acre  in  addition  to  the  usual  crop  of  onions.  More 
manure  is  required  ior  the  two  crops  than  for  the  onions 
alone. 

The  machine  used  for  sowing  in  drills  has  two  boxes  at- 
tached to  the  axle  at  equi-distance  from  the  wheels ;  there 
are  three  or  four  holes  in  the  axle  that  communicate  with  the 
seed  in  the  boxes,  and  as  these  holes  pass  under  the  boxes 
they  are  filled  with  seed,  and  as  they  turn  the  seed  are  drop- 
ped into  the  earth.  Screws  are  sunk  into  the  holes,  which 
can  be  sunk  more  or  less  at  pleasure,  and  the  quantity  of  seed 
which  the  holes  will  contain  is  thus  graded. 

The  machine  should  first  be  tested  and  so  regulated  that 
on  a  barn  floor  it  will  drop  from  eleven  to  twelve  seed  from 
each  hole.  When  so  regulated,  on  using  in  the  field  it  will 
drop  but  from  seven  to  twelve,  owing  to  the  more  uneven,  mo- 
tion. 


2  8  CARROTS,    MANGOLDS     AND    SUGAR    BEETS. 

MARKETING  AND  FEEDING. 

In  the  cities  there  is  a  large  market  for  carrots  as  feed 
for  horses,  it  being  very  generally  accepted  that  a  few  given 
daily  or  every  other  day,  aids  the  digestion  of  grain-fed  ani- 
mals, adds  to  the  gloss  of  the  hair,  and  are  of  special  medic- 
inal value.  The  largest,  smoothest  and  darkest  orange  col- 
ored roots  sell  the  best  in  the  market.  The  price  varies  all 
the  way  from  ten  to  twenty  dollars  a  ton  of  2000  pounds,  de- 
pending in  part  on  the  value  of  hay.  Where  the  quantity  fed 
daily  is  small  a  large  knife  or  a  shovel  will  answer  to  cut  them 
up  in  pieces  of  suitable  size ;  but  if  the  quantity  amounts  to 
several  bushels  daily,  then  a  root-cutter  will  be  needed. 
There  are  two  classes  of  these,  one  for  sheep,  and  the  other 
for  large  stock,  the  essential  difference  being  that  those  de- 
signed to  cut  roots  for  sheep  cut  into  smaller  pieces.  Of 
those  designed  to  cut  roots  for  large  stock,  the  Whittemore 
machine  is  as  good  a  machine  as  any,  having  a  capacity  to 
cut  up  a  bushel  in  about  half  a  minute.  Among  farmers 
there  is  much  unnecessary  fear  about  the  danger  of  animals 
choking  while  feeding  on  apples,  potatoes  and  roots.  For 
the  last  ten  years  I  have  fed  to  my  cows  not  far  from  three 
hundred  tons  of  squashes,  potatoes  and  roots,  ( mostly 
squashes)  and  never  yet  lost  an  animal  or  had  any  very  seri- 
ous trouble  from  choking.  My  habit  is  to  feed  them  while 
quietly  in  their  stalls,  with  a  division  board  between  the  feed 
of  each.  All  cases  of  choking  that  have  come  to  my  notice 
have  occurred  where  '/he  animal  was  suddenly  disturbea 
while  eating.  There  is  a  great  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
how  many  roots  can  be  fed  to  stock  daily  without  injuring 
them.  The  proportion  will  depend  somewhat  on  the  consti- 
tutional peculiarities  of  individual  cows,  but  when  the  bowels 
are  all  right  the  appetite  of  the  animal  is  probably  the  safest 
guide.     I  have  had  a  large  and  extended  experience  in  feed- 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS     AND    SUGAR    LEETS.  29 

ing  squashes  to  milch  cows, — the  Boston  Marrow,  Hubbard 
and  other  varieties ;  beginning  with  half  a  bushel  to  each 
animal,  I  increase  the  quantity  until  the  daily  consumption 
has  averaged  a  hundred  pounds  a  day  to  each.  Under 
such  heavy  feeding,  after  a  while  their  appetites  clog  some- 
what, but  I  am  inclined  to  the  opinion  that,  beginning  with  a 
moderate  feed,  they  would  soon  readily  eat  seventy-five 
pounds  daily  with  a  relish,  for  as  long  a  period  as  they  migl.t 
last.  When  feeding  Carrots  or  any  roots,  the  most  economi" 
cal  method  is  to  give  meadow  or  salt  hay,  with  a  small  quan- 
tity of  flax-seed  or  cotton-seed  meal.  The  effect  of  the  roots 
and  these  rich  meals  is  to  give  to  these  inferior  varieties 
of  hay,  the  nutritious  value  of  the  best  upland  English. 


Is/LJ^JSTO-OTLJD  -wtt^tzieXjS. 

What  is  a  Mangold  Wurtzel?  A  number  of  years  ago 
I  raised  a  piece  of  Early  Turnip  Beet  seed  in  a  very  isolated 
location ;  there  was  not  another  piece  of  Beet  seed  growing 
within  half  a  mile,  at  the  least.  A  good  deal  of  the  seed 
wasted,  as  is  usual  when  the  seed  is  allowed  to  ripen  well  on 
lhe  stock  before  cutting.  From  this  waste  seed  thousands  of 
young  plants  sprang  up,  many  of  which  survived  the  winter, 
by  the  help  of  the  protection  of  chickweed  and  snow.  They 
had  got  so  far  along  when  ploughing  time  came,  I  left  the 
piece  unploughed,  thinning  them  out  that  they  might  pro* 
duce  early  beets.  As  the  season  advanced  a  good  many  of 
them  pushed  seed  shoots  and  ripened  a  crop  of  seed.  Some 
of  the  seed  I  gathered  and  the  next  season  planted  it  to  see 
what  it  would  produce.  The  crop  was  "everything ;"  all  the 
way  from  a  nice,  dark  colored  Early  Turnip  Beet,  through 
different  sizes,  colors  and  forms,  up  to  a  light-fleshed  Man- 
gold Wurtzel.  As  the  original  Beets  were  a  very  pure  Turnip 
Beet,  and  during  several  years  of  careful  cultivation  for  seed 
purposes  had  shown  no  admixture  with  any  other  variety,  the 
experiment  proved  either  that  the  coarse  variety  of  Stock 
Beet,  which  we  call  Mangold  Wurtzel  are  but  sports  from 
our  fine-grained  table  Beets,  or  that  the  Beet  class  are 
sports  from  Mangolds, — most  probably  the  former. 


CARROTS,  MANGOLDS  AND  SUGAR  BEETS.  31 

Mangold  Wurtzels  differ  from  table  Beets  in  their  gen- 
eral coarseness  of  structure,  and  the  larger  size  to  which  they 
grow,  the  elements  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  each 
being  the  same  in  kind.  I  have  grown  an  ordinary  Turnip 
Beet  to  weigh  twenty-three  pounds,  and  of  the  size  of  a  half 
bushel  measure.  At  times,  on  rich,  friable  soil,  the  Long 
Blood  Beet  will  attain  to  large  proportions,  but  when  led  by 
such  results  to  attempt  to  get  equal  weight  with  Mangolds, 
under  first-rate  conditions,  the  experiment,  with  me,  has  uni- 
formly failed.  Still,  when  quality  is  wanted,  in  the  fattening 
of  hogs  for  instance,  I  am  not  certain  but  that  the  food  ob- 
tained from  an  acre  of  the  large  variety  of  table  Beets,  may 
not  be  more  than  that  obtained  from  an  equal  acre  in 
Mangolds. 

What  is  a  Sugar  Beet?  The  term  "Sugar  Eeet"  is  an  un- 
fortunate one,  as  the  word  "Sugar"  had  already  been  appro- 
priated to  express  the  sweet  flavor  of  the  varieties  of  Beets 
raised  for  table  use,  while  the  word  Beet  is  strictly  a  misno- 
mer, the  vegetable  Sugar  Beet  being  in  reality  a  Mangold 
Wurtzel.  A  generation  ago  our  fathers  used  the  term  "Sugar" 
as  a  familiar  designation  for  any  sweet  variety  of  beet  raised 
for  table  use,  and  at  the  present  by  the  great  majority  of  the 
public  the  term  is  still  so  used.  As  the  new  industry  of  man- 
ufacturing sugar  from  the  beet  grew  on  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope, seedsmen  were  called  upon  to  supply  for  commerce 
seed  of  the  best  variety  for  this  purpose.  It  was  necessary 
that  this  variety  should  be  as  free  as  possible  from  all  coloring 
substance  as  this  would,  as  a  matter  of  course,  give  a  stain  to 
the  juice,  and  impose  on  the  manufacturer  the  labor  of  puri- 
fying it.  The  ones  at  first  selected  were  the  long,  white 
Mangold  Wurtzels,  and  these  were  called  the  "Sugar"  Beet 
in  commercial  parlance.  These  white  Mangolds  were  not 
entirely  white,  the  portion  that  grew  above  ground  being  us- 
ually colored  a  light  green  by  exposure  to  the  sun's  rays  ;  it 


32 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS    AND    SUGAR    BEETS. 


became  therefore  an  object  for  the  manufacturer  to  still  im- 
prove on  them  to  the  end  that  all  the  coloring  should  be 
eliminated.  The  intelligence  and  enterprise  of  the  seedsmen 
of  Europe  responded  to  this  want,  and  in  the  course  of  a 
few  years  two  prominent  varieties  were  produced,  that  have 
nearly  completely  satisfied  it, — one  of  these  was  sent  out  by 
the  estimable  house  of  Vilmorin  Andrieux  c\:  Co.,  of  Pari., 
and  is  named  "Vilmorin's  New  Improved  White,"  and  the 
other  "White  Imperial  Extra,"  by  the  distinguished  German 
house  of  Ernest  Benary. 

These  improved  Sugar  Beets  of  commerce  grow  nearly 
entirely  under  ground,  and  when  grown  these  beets  define 
themselves  to  be  the  Mangold  variety,  by  the  coarser  struc- 
ture of  the  root,  the  stouter  ribs  and  the  greater  coarseness 
of  the  leaves,  which  spring  in  larger  masses  directly  from  the 
crown,  than  is  the  case  with  beets  for  the  table. 

The  moral  of  all  this  for  my  farmer  friends  is,  that  if  you 
want  a  beet  for  table  use  do  not  order  "Sugar  Beet"  or  you 
will  be  very  likely  to  find  a  Mangold  growing  in  your  garden, 
a  return,  but  not  a  recompense  for  the  sweat  and  toil  of  the 
husbandman. 

VARIETIES. 

About  twenty  varieties  are  catalogued  by  seedsmen,  many 
of  which  are  but  strains  of  the  same  kind,  bearing  the  name 
of  the  grower,  who  by  careful  cultivation  has  endeavored  to 
improve  it.  Classified  by  form  they  come  under  three  classes, 
vjz>  . — the  long^  the  round  and  the  ovoid  or  intermediate 
varieties.  Classified  by  color  we  have  the  red  or  scarlet,  the 
pink,  the  yellow  or  orange,  and  the  white  varieties. 

The  Long  Varieties. — Among  the  more  prominent 
of  these  are  the  Ox  Horn,  the  common  Long  Red,  Sutton's 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS     AND    SUGAR    BEETS. 


33 


m 


Imperial,  Norbiton  Giant,  Long  Egyptian,  Carter's  Improved 

the  Long  Yellow,  and  the  Siles- 
ian  varieties  of  Sugar  Beet.  The 
Ox  Horn  is  a  very  crooked  grow- 
ing variety,  as  its  name  would 
imply,  with  a  small  diameter  in 


proportion  to  its  great  length. 
Growing  almost  wholly  out  of 
ground  it  curves  about  so  in 
the  row  as  to  be  decidedly  in 
the  way,  is  apt  to  break  when 
pulled  and  in  addition  to  these 
defects,  storing  very  badly,  it  is 
not  in  any  way  desirable.  The 
Norbiton  Giant,  Carter's  Mam- 
moth Long  Red,  Sutton's  Impe- 
rial, and  Long  Elvethan  are  im- 
provements over  the  common 
Long  Red  in  a  greater  uniform- 
ity in  their  habit  of  growth,  their 
size,  and  a  less  liability  to  grow 
hollow    at    the    top    at    the  ad- 


I 


Ik 


vanced  stage  of  growth. 

TI13  Round  Tarieties. — In 

these  are  included  the  common 
Red  and  Yellow  Globe,  with 
some  of  the  under-ground  vari- 
eties of  the  Sugar  Beet. 

Ovoid    are    either  red  or  yel- 
low in  color  and  are  intermediate 
in  form  between  the  long  and  the  round  kinds. 

What  Kinds  to  Grow. —  In  this   country  the  Long 
Red  are  the  most  popular,  particularly  Ihe  Norbiton  Giant 


LONG  RED  MANGOLD. 


34 


CARROTS,  MANGOLDS  AND  SUGAR  BEETS. 


variety.     While 
travelling  in    Eng- 
land, Ireland    and 
France,  for  inquiry 
and  observation,  I 
found     that     the 
round    and    ovoid 
varieties  were  more 
generally    cultivat- 
ed than    the    long 
sorts.      In  my  ex- 
perience the  ovoid 
varieties     incline 
to  grow   smooth- 
er   than    the    long 
kinds    and     htnce 
are  likely  to  bring 
up  less  earth  with 
them,    which      on 
heavy     soil    is    a 
matter    of     so  m  e 
moment.     I   think  of  the  two  kinds  the  yellow,  under   the 
same  circumstances,  makes  the  larger  root.      The  long  va- 
rieties pile  better  in  the  cellar,  while  the  round  or  ovoids  cut 
up  rather  more  readily,  appear  less  inclined  to  rot  at  the  top, 
and  are  firmer  fleshed.     The  globe  and  ovoid  varieties  ap- 
pear to  be  best  adapted  to  hard  and  shallow  soils,  and  of 
these  the  Yellow  Globe  and  Ovoid  are  especially   valuable, 
as  they  are  better  keepers  than  most  sorts  and  remain  sound, 
without  sprouting,  until  late  into  the  spring,  and  with  special 
care  may  be  kept  even  into  the  summer  season. 

The  long  Silesian  varieties  of  Sugar  Beet  vary  from 
each  other  only  in  the  color  of  the  part  exposed  above 
ground. — being    green,    grey    or    red.        The    kind    intro- 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS     AND    SUGAR    BEETS. 


•5 


■duced  to  the  American  public  a  few  years  ago,  under 
the  name  of  Lane's  Improved  American  Sugar  Beet,  is  a 
strain  of  the  Long  White  Mangold.  The  improved  varieties 
of  Germany  and  France  yield  about  double  the  per  centage 
of  sugar  that  is  found  in  the  common  Mangold,  in  some 
crops  the  proportion 
being  as  high  as  thir- 
teen per  cent.  This 
would  make  the  Sugar 
Beets  of  double  the 
value  of  Mangolds  for 
stock,  but  unfortu- 
nately, the  roots  ru- 
der like  conditions  of 
cultivation,  average 
"but  half  the  weight  of 
Mangolds. 

As  this  treatise  is 
about  roots  as  food  for 
stock,  the  cultivation 
of  beet  for  the  manu- 
facture of  sugar  is  not  globe  mangold. 
within  its  sphere,  yet  I  must  express  surprise  that  with  the 
experience  of  Germany  and  France  to  draw  from  and  our 
own  inventive  skill  and  enterprise  to  add  to  it,  we  have  not 
as  yet  made  marked  advance  in  this  department  of  manu- 
facturing industry.  The  average  percentage  of  sugar  found 
in  analysis  of  beets  grown  in  this  country  is  exceptional)!}' 
high.  Land  free  from  alkalies,  of  unbounded  fertility,  readily 
accessible,  being  attainable  at  almost  nominal  cost,  it  is  a 
standing  puzzle  why  we  do  not  follow  the  example  of  other 
countries  and  raise  our  own  sugar  rather  than  import  it.  Per- 
haps the  conundrum  will  be  solved  yet  by  some  associate 
enterprise    among    our   farmers,   similar  to   that  which  gave 


30  CARROTS,    MANGOLDS    AND    SUGAR    BEETS. 

birth  to  our  cheese  factory  system  ;  the  inducement  in  this 
case  being  the  home  market  that  the  sugar  factory  would  af- 
ford for  unlimited  areas  of  beets,  while  the  refuse  pulp  would 
enable  them  to  increase  greatly  the  number  of  their  neat 
stock,  to  the  advantage  of  the  manure  pile  and  enlargement 
of  their  area  of  tillage. 

THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  PREPARATION. 

In  the  matter  of  soil,  Mangold  Wurtzels  will  accept  a 
greater  latitude  than  any  other  root ;  thriving  on  every  va- 
riety, all  the  way  from  light  loam  to  muck,  and  from  that  to 
as  strong  a  clay  as  is  sufficiently  friable  for  tillage.  Muck 
(properly  drained)  and  a  strong  loam  are  best  suited  to  de- 
velop pounds  of  crop.  Though  the  crop  grown  in  the  light- 
er soil  is  not  so  great,  it  is  much  sweeter  than  when  grown 
on  heavy  soil,  and  when  extraordinary  quantities  of  manure 
have  been  applied,  some  of  the  heaviest  crops  on  record  have 
been  grown  on  light  loam.  The  great  crop  of  Mr.  Fearing 
<  >f  Hingham,  of  over  sixty  tons  to  the  acre,  was  raised  on  a 
sandy  loam.  Some  years  ago  I  took  a  purchaser  into  the 
field  where  two  lots  of  Mangolds  were  growing ;  he  selected 
at  once  the  large  roots  on  the  low  land.  I  asked  him  to 
taste  a  slice  of  those  on  the  upland,  when  he  at  once  changed 
his  preference.  As  a  rule  it  will  be  found  that  those  grown 
on  warm,  upland  soil  are  decidedly  the  sweeter  and  this  fact 
has  an  important  bearing  on  the  feeding  value  of  the  crop. 

If  the  soil  is  in  good  heart  for  a  foot  in  depth,  plough  it 
to  that  depth  before  putting  on  the  manure.  After  putting 
on  the  manure,  if  coarse,  it  will  be  well  to  cut  it  up  with 
Randall's  wheel -harrow  before  ploughing  under.  After  cross 
ploughing  the  manure  four  or  five  inches  beneath  the  surface 
the  aim  should  be  to  make  a  good  seed  bed  by  getting  the    | 

ce  level  and  the  soil  li^ht  and  fine.       On  most  soils  this 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS   AND    SUGAR    BEETS.  37 

can  b~  accomplished  by  a  liberal  use  of  the  wheel-harrow 
followed  by  a  fine-toothed,  smoothing  harrow  and  that  by  a 
plank  drag.  An  old  barn  door  will  sometimes  answer  for 
this,  but  as  it  is  an  excellent  implement  on  the  farm  it  will  be 
well  to  have  one.  It  should  be  about  three  feet  wide  and 
six  long,  with  one  side  about  ten  inches  high,  meeting  the 
bottom  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  ;  the  planks  had 
better  overlap  slightly,  as  they  will  the  better  break  the  lumps 
of  earth.  The  team  is  to  be  hitched  to  ihe  turned  up  side, 
and  the  driver  is  to  stand  on  the  drag,  driving  it  sideways 
over  the  land.  The  effect  of  such  a  drag  in  breaking  up 
lumps  and  generally  pulverizing  the  soil,  will  be  found  to  be 
much  superior  to  that  of  any  roller.  Should  the  soil  be  ot 
such  a  character  or  in  such  a  condition  that  the  harrow  and 
drag  process  will  not  make  a  good  seed  bed,  there  remains 
no  resource  other  than  to  prepare  it  as  for  onions,  by  raking 
over  the  entire  surface. 

THE  MANURE  AND  ITS  APPLICATION. 

The  kind  and  quantities  of  food  needed  to  grow  any 
vegetable  is  found  by  an  analysis  of  that  vegetable.  Having 
thus  learned  the  kind  and  quantity  needed  for  any  crop,  the 
next  step  of  the  wise  farmer  will  be  to  ascertain  what  ma- 
nures contain  the  necessary  constituents  and  which  of  these 
contain  them  in  the  cheapest  form.  A  little  knowledge  of 
Chemistry,  in  its  application  to  manures,  is  of  incalculable  val- 
ue to  the  husbandman  and  no  amount  of  experience  and  tra- 
ditionary knowledge  can  serve  as  a  substitute  for  it.  I  believe 
that  it  is  in  this  direction  that  the  great  advance  in  agricul- 
ture will  be  made,  and  were  there  no  other  argument  for 
Agricultural  colleges  the  fact  that  they  are  prepared  to  give 
thorough  instruction  in  this  one  department  would  be  a  suf- 
ficient reason  for  their  existence,  and  for  their  liberal  patron- 


3* 


CARROTS,  MANGOLDS  AND  SUGAR  DEETS. 


age  by  their  several  states.      Prof.  Yoelcker,  an  excellent  aa 
thority  in  everything  that  pertains  to  chemistry,  in  its  appli 
cation  to  agriculture,  gives  the  following  table  as  the  average 
composition  of  the  ash  of  the  principal  root  crops. 


AVERAGE   COMPOSITION   OF  THE  ASH   OF   ROOTS. 


a-3 


IT. 


Turnips. 
Swedes. 
Mangolds. 

Carrots. 
Parsnips. 


38 

49.8 

7.3 

n.7 

,6 

10.3 

11. 8 

1.2 

7 

3s-9 

14.0 

».8 

o.3 

i°-4 

C3-7 

1.9 

12 

18.4 

5-9 

4.8 

c>.3 

S-3 

3-7 

4.0 

:  ' 

10.4 

' 

9-5 

1 .0 

14.4 

4-7 

3.8 

10 

37-° 

■'  '•/ 

.0.9 

1.0 

11. 2 

6.9 

2.0 

4 

'■7 

=■7 

■w 

6.0 

i-3 

i5-3 

5-6 

=  •4 

LEAF  ASH. 


37 

27.6 

5-i 

33-2 

2.6 

- 

3 

21.9 

12.3 

30.2 

3.2 

M  \N'  iOLDS. 

4 

25.5 

23-3 

10.4 

9-7 

Si'(_,.\:< 

7 

21.9 

16.6 

19.5 

18. 1 

■   ITS. 

7 

17.6 

18.2 

32.1 

3-9 

,3 

.,. 

3-:. 

6.4 

4.3 

5-4 

7.2 

3-  3 

7-3 

7-9 

3-1 

3-3 

' 

5.2 

i7.8 

5-7 

'  3 


rfhis  table  shows  us  that  the  Mangolds  require  the  min- 
eral ingredients  of  manure  in  the  following  order,  when  ar- 
ranged with  reference  to  their  importance  : — Potash,  Soda, 
Chlorine,  Lime,  Phosphoric  Acid,  Magnesia,  Sulphuric  Acid, 
Silica.  In  addition  to  these  minerals  other  substances  enter 
into  the  composition  of  Mangolds,  the  most  important  of 
which  is  Nitrogen.  Barn-yard  manure  contains  a*bout  all  the 
elements  needed  by  vegetation,  but  not  always  in  the  right 
proportion,  therefore,  when  applying  it,  it  is  always  profita- 
ble to  know  the  proportions  of  the  minerals  which  enter  into 
crops  that  the  deficiency  may  be  supplied  from  other  sou; 
It  is  perhaps  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  unleached   wood 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS    AND    SUGAR    BEETS.  39 

ashes  and  the  German  Potash  Salts,  Sulphate  and  Muriate, 
are  the  cheapest  sources  for  Potash  at  present  known,  while 
Soda  and  Chlorine  are  most  cheaply  obtained  from  the 
waste  salt  of  the  fisheries.  Of  this  I  shall  have  more 
to  say  presently  when  treating  of  salt  as  an  auxiliary  fertili- 
zer. Lime  is  most  cheaply  obtained  from  the  common  Car- 
bonate of  Lime  of  the  mason,  either  water  or  air  slacked, 
and  this  usually  contains  more  or  less  of  Magnesia.  The 
great  source  of  Phosphoric  Acid  is  the  bones  of  animals  or 
coprolites,  by  which  is  meant  the  fossilized  bones  and  dung 
of  extinct  animals  ;  Sulphuric  Acid  is  most  cheaply  obtained 
from  Plaster,  which  is  Sulphate  of  Lime. 

Some  hold  great  benefit  is  derived  by  the  crop 
of  the  following  year,  from  ploughing  under  the  leases 
as  soon  as  the  roots  are  topped;  the  value  of  this  is  just 
what  the  analyses  of  our  table  shows.  The  large  crops 
reported  as  raised  in  this  country,  have  been  raised  on  soil 
raimng  from  light  to  a  friable  clay  loam  and  have  receive  1 
all  the  way  from  eight  to  fifteen  cords  of  barn-yard  manure 
to  the  acre.  In  some  instances  this  has  been  all  ploughed 
in  ;  in  others  half  spread  broadcast  and  ploughed  in  and  th  : 
other  half  put  in  the  furrows.  When  coarse  and  unferment- 
ed  I  would  advise  a  deep  ploughing  of  it  under,  in  the  Fall 
As  with  Carrots,  other  waste  substances  can  be  used  as  sub- 
stitutes for  barn-yard  manure,  care  being  taken,  eithei  that 
such  waste  substances  are  specially  rich  in  Potash,  Soda  and 
Chlorine,  or  that  these  substances  be  added.  The  equiva- 
lents given  are  roughly  estimated  under  the  article  treating 
of  the  manure  for  Carrots  and  will  be  suvrl  :ient  for  practical 
purposes;  I  therefore  make  no  further  allusions  to  these 
cheap  wastes  as  sources  for  manure,  further  than  to  mention 
that  sea  manures  are  specially  rich  in  potash  and  soda. 

Of  all  roots  Mangolds  are  the  rankest  feeders,  removing 
more  plant  iyi  I  from  the  soil  than  any  oth  :r  root  crop.    Th  : 


4Q  CARROT,    MANGOLDS    AND    SUGAR    BEETS. 

crop  of  Mr.  Albert  Fearing,  of  Hingham,  Mass.,  was  sixty 
tons  of  roots,  and  if  the  tops  were  in  the  usual  proportion, 
of  about  one-third,  they  weighed  twenty  tons  more,  giv- 
ing the  enormous  yield  of  eighty  tons  of  green  food  from 
one  acre  of  ground.  The  crop  raised  on  Deer  Island,  in 
Boston  harbor,  was  about  seventy  tons  to  the  acre  ;  with  a 
like  proportion  of  tops  the  total  yield  must  have  been  over 
a  hundred  tons.  In  the  sewage  farms  of  England  eighty 
tons  of  roots  have  been  raised  on  an  acre  of  ground.  Fear- 
ing applied  fifteen  cords  of  manure  to  his  acre  of  ground ;  of 
the  quantity  applied  to  the  Deer  Island  crop  I  regret  I  have 
not  the  data  at  hand. 

If  the  mere  bulk  alone  was  to  be  aimed  at  in  the  crop, 
the  problem  would  be  a  very  simple  one,  but  there  a:e  three 
points  to  be  considered:  first,  how  to  get  a  crop  that  shah 
be  great  in  bulk  and  at  the  same  time  give  us  the  second  de- 
sirable point,  viz.  :  ripeness,  and  t  ms  insure  the  third  desira- 
ble point,  viz.  :  the  highest  percentage  of  sugar  it  is  possible 
for  the  roots  to  acquire. 

This  matter  of  the  value  of  Mangolds,  for  feeding  pur- 
poses, being  in  about  the  same  proportion  as  the  sugar  pre- 
sent, though  appertaining  to  that  part  of  this  Treatise  which 
treats  of  "Feeding  to  Stock,"  yet  has  so  direct  a  bearing  on 
the  manuring  of  the  crops  that  I  will  take  it  up  at  this  place. 
The  recent  researches  of  that  distinguished  chemist,  Prof. 
Voelcker  of  England,  than  whom  there  is  no  better  authori- 
ty, has  thrown  much  light  0:1  the  question  of  manure  in  its 
application  to  this  crop.  The  Professor  takes  the  position 
that  the  nutritious  value  of  roots  is  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  cf  dry  matter  in  them,  and  that  the  percentage  of 
sugar  present  coincides  with  that  of  dry  matter,  the  propor- 
tion of  sugar  rising  or  falling  with  the  percentage  of  dry  mat- 
ter in  the  roots.  That  the  feeding  value  does  not  depend 
on  the  oroportion  of  nitrogen"  they  contain,  i ;  proved  theoret- 


CARROTS,  MANGOLDS  AND  SUGAR  BEETS.  41 

ically,  by  the  fact  that  the  percentage  is  very  much  higher  in 
the  early  stages  of  growth,  before  the  crop  is  matured,  than 
it  is  later  in  the  season,  while  in  the  experiments  of  Mr. 
Lawes  in  feeding  sheep,  the  lot  containing  the  most  nitrogen 
in  the  way  of  nutrition  gave  the  poorest  results. 

Assuming  with  Prof.  Voelcker  that  bulk  should  not  be 
sought  at  a  disproportionate  sacrifice  of  sugar  in  the  crop, 
and  that  certain  soils  and  certain  manures  and  certain 
methods  of  cultivation  are  more  favorable  than  others  to  the 
d:velopment  of  this  desirable  proportion.  I  present  extracts 
from  his  valuable  article  on  "Root  Crops  as  affected  by  Soil 
and  Manures." 

"Land  highly  manured  with  rich  dung  from  the  fattening 
boxes  or  stables,  induces  luxurious  and  vigorous  gro.vth  in 
root  crops,  and,  as  is  well  known,  has  a  tendency  to  develop 
over-luxuriance  in  the  tops.  This  is  the  case  more  particu- 
larly if  the  dung  is  derived  from  fattening  beasts,  liberally 
supplied  with  oil-cake  and  artificial  food,  rich  in  nitrogen- 
ous constituents.  If  the  Autumn  turns  out  fairly  dry  and 
warm,  the  roots  in  highly  manured  land  continue  to  grow 
vigorously,  the  bulbs  swell  to  a  large  dimension,  and  if  the 
weather  in  September  and  October  continues  warm  and  dry. 
a  heavy  weight,  and  fairly  ripe  roots,  result  from  the  liberal 
use  of  rich  dung.  But  should  the  Autumn  be  cold  and  wet, 
too  liberal  an  application  of  good,  well-rotten  dung  is  apt  to 
maintain  the  luxuriant  tops  in  a  vigorous,  active-growing 
condition,  at  a  period  of  the  year  when  the  crop  has  to  be 
taken  up,  and  the  result  is  an  immature  root  crop,  of  a  low 
feeding  value.  Although  the  bulbs  may  be  of  a  good  size, 
they  turn  out,  when  grown  under  such  conditions,  watery,  de- 
ficient in  sugar,  and  not  nearly  as  nutritious  as  they  would 
have  been  had  a  more  moderate  dressing  of  dung  been  put 
upon  the  land.  The  main  cause  of  the  immature  condition 
and  low-feeding  quality  of  Mangolds  grown  with  an  excess- 


42  CARROTS,  MANGOLDS  AND  SUGAR  UEETS. 

ive  quantity  of  rich  dung  is  the  comparatively  large  amount 
of  ammonial  and  nitrogenous  constituents  in  the  dung;  for 
numerous  field  experiments  have  shown  that  the  peculiar  ten- 
dency of  ammonia  salts,  and  of  readily  available  nitrogenous 
substances  is  to  induce  luxuriant  leaf-development  and  vig- 
orous and  prolonged  growth,  which  results  frequently  in  a 
more  or  less  immature  condition  of  the  roots.  There  is  thus 
danger  of  over-manuring  crops ;  and  the  desire  to  produce 
heavy  crops  of  Mangolds  not  unfrequently  leads  practical 
men  not  to  appreciate  sufficiently  this  danger.  It  is  quite 
true  Mangolds  are  very  greedy  feeders,  and  no  doubt  some 
soils  will  swallow  up  almost  any  amount  of  dung ;  but  at  the 
same  time  it  has  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  land  is  not 
alike,  and  that  there  are  many  naturally  rich  clay  loams  con- 
taining immense  stores  of  plant  food,  which  requires  only  to 
be  brought  into  play  by  good  cultivation  in  order  to  become 
available  to  plants.  I  am  much  inclined  to  think  that  it  is  a 
mistake  to  manure  soils  of  the  latter  description  too  liberally 
with  dung,  even  for  Mangolds,  and  that  in  many  cases  a 
more  economical  result,  and  certainly  a  Letter  quality  of 
Mangolds,  although  not  so  heavy  a  crop,  would  be  given,  if, 
instead  of  all  the  enormous  dressings  of  dung  which  are 
often  applied  to  that  crop,  the  land  were  manured  in  Autumn 
with  only  half  the  quantity  of  dung,  and  the  seed  drilled  in 
with  three  to  four  cwt.  of  superphosphate  or  dissolved  bones, 
which  manures,  as  we  shall  see  presently  have  a  tendency  to 
produce  early  maturity  in  roots.  We  frequently  hear  of 
complaints  that  Mangolds  scour,  or  do  not  keep  well.  Com- 
plaints of  this  kind  are  only  the  expressions  in  other  words 
for  the  immature  condition  of  the  roots,  and  in  many  cases 
the  cause  of  this  undesirable  condition  has  to  be  sought  in 
the  excessive  amount  of  ammonial  or  nitrogenous  constitu- 
ents which  are  applied  to  the  Mangolds  in  the  shape  of 
heavy  dressings  of  dung.       The   same   remarks   apply  with 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS    AND    SUGAR    BEETS. 


43 


equal  force  to  the  exclusive  and  too  abundant  use  of  Peru 
vian  guano,  sulphate  of  ammonia  and  nitrogenous  manures 
in  general.  The  special  effect  of  all  ammonial  and  nitroge- 
nous manures  in  general,  as  already  stated,  is  to  produce  lux- 
uriant leaf  development,  to  induce  prolonged  and  vigorous 
growth,  resulting  in  an  immature  and  watery  condition*  of  the 
bulbs. 

Large  roots,  generally  speaking,  are  far  less  nutritious 
than  better  matured  roots  of  a  moderate  size.  For  illustra- 
tion of  this  fact  I  quote  the  following  comparative  analyses  : 


2  5 

j 

v  2 

M-5 

ijj  v 

ti 

* 

8f 

m  0 

"O 

< 

fco 

u 

CU 

U 

Mangolds  9  lbs. 

91.85 

1-34 

2.86 

2.54 

I.4I 

71-2  lbs. 

89.48 

1.24 

3-95 

4-5  I 

.82 

4  lbs. 

89.77 

°-73 

7.68 

.89 

•93 

"          1  to  2  lbs. 

86.90 

0.61 

10.51 

I.07 

.91 

Small  Mangolds  approach  Sugar  Beets  in  composition, 
whilst  large  Sugar  Beets  are  hardly  better  than  common 
Mangolds,  and  monster  beets  are  even  less  nutritious  than 
well-matured  Mangolds  of  fair  average  size.  Monster  roots, 
as  is  well  known,  are  always  very  watery,  poor  in  sugar,  and 
almost  useless  for  feeding  purposes. 

Big  Berkshire  beets, — one  weighing  16  pounds  and  the 
other  12  1-4  pounds, — contained  only  3.89  or  4  per  cent,  of 
sugar  respectively,  and  in  round  numbers  as  much  as  91  1-2 
per  cent,  of  water.  This  high  percentage  of  water  is  ac- 
companied by  a  larger  amount  of  albuminous  compounds 
and  of  mineral  matter,  than  the  proportions  in  roots,  contain- 
ing very  much  more  solid  feeding  matter-  A  large  amount 
of  albuminous  matter  and  of  ash,  indeed  indicates  immatur- 
ity and  poverty  in  sugar,  a  characteristic  of  big.  excessively 
manured  roots. 


44  CARROTS,    MANGOLDS    AND    S'JGAR    BEETS. 

"Generally  speaking,  all  nitrogenous  manure,  either 
should  not  be  used  at  all,  or  only  sparingly,  for  roots,  on  stiff* 
ish  land,  and  all  soils  which  contain  a  good  deal  of  clay, 
are  naturally  cold  and  unfavorable  to  a  vigorous  and  rapid 
growth.  On  the  other  hand,  raw,  or  better  still,  dissolved 
Peruvian  guano  is  an  excellent  manure  for  root  crops  upon 
light  land,  which,  like  most  productive  sandy  soils  and  fria- 
ble turnip  loams,  favors  the  quick  and  vigorous  growth  of 
roots,  and  is  conducive  to  early  maturity. 

"Nitrate  of  soda  has  the  same  general  effect  upon  "root 
crops  as  nitrogenous  manures,  but  it  appears  to  be  more  en- 
ergetic in  its  action,  and,  on  the  whole,  to  be  a  useful  addi- 
tion to  home  manures,  and  to  increase  the  produce  in  roots 
more  considerably  than  salts  of  ammonia.  Its  effect' is  spec- 
ially marked  upon  mangolds,  and,  to  my  knowledge,  heavy 
crops  of  mangolds  have  been  produced  upon  rather  light 
land  by  i  1-2  per  cent,  of  Nitrate  of  Soda,  two  cwt.  of 
common  salt,  sown  broadcast,  and  four  cwt.  of  dissolved 
bones  drilled  in  with  the  seed. 

"Potash  salts  in  some  field  experiments  which  I  have 
tried  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  have  shown  that  Pot- 
ash has  a  decidedly  beneficial  effect  upon  root  crops,  on 
poor,  sand}'  soils  ;  while  on  the  majority  of  land,  and  nota- 
bly upon  clays  or  chy  loams,  or  soils  in  a  good  agricultural 
condition,  Salts  of  Potash  do  not  increase  the  produce.  The 
special  effect  of  superphosphates,  dissolved  bones  and  simi- 
lar phosphatic  manures,  is  to  produce  early  maturity ;  and 
hence  phosphatic  manures  are  employed  in  practice  very 
largely,  and  with  much  benefit,  by  root  growers.  In  free- 
growing,  light  soils,  it  is  desirable  either  to  use  dissolved 
bones  in  addition  to  half  dressing  of  farm-yard  manure,  as  a 
manure  for  roots,  or  to  spread  broadcast  2  or  3  cwt.  of  salt, 
or  2  cwt.  of  guano  and  1  cwt.  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  2  cwt.  of 
common  salt,  and  to  drill  with  the  seed  ^  to  4  cwt.  of  dis- 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS    AND    SUGAR    BEETS. 


45 


solved  bones.  On  the  heavier  description  of  soils  it  is  pref- 
erable to  use  mineral  superphosphate  for  roots,  especially  if 
the  land  has  been  dressed  in  Autumn  with  a  moderate  quan- 
tity of  dung." 

SALT  AS  AN  AUXILIARY  MANURE. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  table  of  analysis  of  roots,  that  th  • 
Mangold  has  in  it  a  remarkably  large  percentage  of  Chlorine 
and  Soda,  the  roots  yielding  respectively  9.9  and  18.4,  while 
the  tops  give,  17.8  and  23.3.  Salt  being  a  combination  of 
Chlorine  and  Soda,  known  to  chemists  as  Chloride  of  Sodi- 
um, must  therefore  be  a  valuable  auxiliary  manure  for  Man- 
golds, that  is,  one  to  be  used  in  connection  with  other  ma- 
nures. Practice  proves  what  chemistry  indicates..  Prof- 
Voelcker  tells  us  that  "salt  tends  to  check  over-luxuriance  in 
the  tops,  while  it  prolongs  the  period  of  active  growth.  In 
consequence  of  this  specific  action  it  may  be  employed  with 
benefit  as  an  auxiliary  manure  upon  light  land,  in  quantities 
not  greater  than  five  bushels  to  the  acre."  Mr.  Lewis,  of 
New  York,  believes  that  by  scattering  over  the  surface,  when 
the  Mangolds  develop  the  fourth  leaf,  four  or  five  bushels  of 
the  refuse  of  the  Syracuse  salt  works,  which  is  about  equal 
parts  of  salt  and  plaster,  he  has  increased  his  crop  ten  tons 
to  the  acre.  Mr.  Lewis  finds  that  salt  tends  to  prevent  a  dis- 
ease which  sometimes  attacks  the  leaves,  known  as  "rust. 
He  states  that  it  can  be  obtained  at  the  works  for  about  $3.50 
per  ton.  Prof.  Voelcker  believes  it  would  be  injurious  rather 
than  beneficial  on  heavy  land. 

The  quantity  to  be  applied  to  the  acre  as  given  by  prac- 
tical growers,  varies  from  four  to  twenty-live  bushels.  The 
effect  is  not  always  the  same  ;  one  season  the  increase  may 
be  very  striking  and  the  next,  under  the  same  application, 
not  be  perceptible,  the   cause  of  which  is  not  very    clear. 


46  CARROTS,    MANGOLDS    AND    SUGAR    BEETS. 

though  it  appears  to  give  better  results  in  dry  scaspns  than  in 
wet.  The  most  striking  effect  from  the  application  of  large 
quantities,  in  my  experience,  has  been  on  the  borders  of 
meadow  land.  A  number  of  years  ago  I  manured  in  the 
furrow  with  refuse  herring  bait,  salt  and  all,  just  as  taken  from 
the  fish  barrels.  The  crop  of  Mangolds  grown  from  this  ma- 
nuring was  one  of  the  largest  and  smoothest  I  ever  raised. 
The  next  season  the  land  was  planted  to  Oats.  In  the  Fall, 
while  laying  a  heap  of  this  oat  straw  in  the  barn,  I  chanced 
to  use  one  as  a  tooth-pick.  It  tasted  as  though  it  had  been 
pickled ;  thinking  it  was  the  result  of  some  accident,  I  took 
another ;  that  also  was  salt.  This  aroused  my  curiosity  and 
on  examination  I  found  farther,  to  my  great  surprise,  that 
all  the  straw  tasted  as  though  it  had  been  dipped  in  pret- 
ty strong  brine.  Certainly  this  tremendous  salting,  over 
and  above  what  the  crop  of  Mangolds  could  use,  to  all  ap- 
pearance, had  not  lessened  the  bulk  of  roots.  On  meadow 
land,  Mr.  Ware  of  this  town,  thinks  that  in  a  dry  season  he 
doubled  his  crop  by  the  application  of  refuse  salt,  at  the  rate 
of  twenty-five  bushels  to  the  acre.  In  purchasing  waste  salt 
for  this  or  any  other  agricultural  crop,  it  is  best  to  get  the 
dirtiost  lot  possible,  for  this  dirt  is  the  waste  of  the  fish  on 
which  it  has  been  used,  and  consists  mostly  of  fish  scales* 
which  for  manuring  purposes  is  decidedly  the  most  valuable 
part  of  the  fish.  For  this  reason  the  waste  from  salted  her- 
ring is  probably  the  most  valuable  of  all.  Under  the  open 
platforms  where  fish  are  dried,  in  sea-port  towns,  and  from 
which  there  is  always  some  dripping,  the  rankest  of  grass 
grows.  Salt  lessens  the  proportion  of  sugar  in  the  roots. 

PLANTING  THE  SEED  AND  TENDING  THE  CROP. 

Our  ground  being  now  ready  the  next  step  is  to  plant  it. 
How  much  seed  shall  we  need  and  how  far  apart  shall  we 
have  the  rows?     From  four  to  six  pounds  of  seed  is  the  us- 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS    AND    SUGAR    BEETS.  47 

ual  quantity,  the  higher  figures  evidently  allowing  for  a  con- 
siderable waste,  while  with  hand  planting  even  the  small- 
er amount  may  be  decreased.  As  to  the  proper  distance 
between  the  rows,  practical  growers  will  give  various  re- 
plies; — 18,  20,  22,  24,  30  inches.  The  thirty  inch  men 
are  those  who  expect  to  depend  on  the  cultivator  to  do 
about  all  their  weeding,  and  are  willing  to  prepare  and  spare 
more  ground,  with  the  object  of  having  less  weeding.  ,That 
the  crop  does  not  require  so  much  room  to  yield  the  great- 
est bulk,  is  shown  by  the  experience  of  other  cultivators, 
who  have  raised  from  forty  to  over  sixty  tons  to  the  acre, 
with  their  rows  from  eighteen  to  twenty-two  inches  apart, 
while  the  greatest  crop  on  record,  viz.  : — of  over  eighty  tons 
to  the  acre,  was  raised  with  the  rows  twenty-four  inches  apart. 
Planting  on  ridges  is  often  advised,  but  as  far  as  I  have 
observed,  those  who  begin  this  way  generally  change  to  the 
system  of  level  culture  as  they  advance  in  experience.  The 
only  advantages  I  have  found  in  the  system  of  ridge  cultiva- 
tion have  been  that  the  Mangolds  appear  to  grow  with  fewer 
roots,  and  are  rather  more  easily  weeded.  These  advantages 
in  practice  are  more  than  off-set  by  the  extra  labor  of  mak- 
ing the  ridges  and  preparing  them  for  planting.  '>  Mangold 
seed  is  apt  to  come  up  badly.  In  France,  where  land  is  cut 
up  into  small  areas  and  labor  is  cheap,  one  would  expect  to 
find  as  little  waste  as  possible,  but  while  traveling  there  I 
noted  in  their  fields  that  the  Mangolds  were  quite  scattering. 
Mangold  seed,  like  those  of  beets,  are  enclosed  in  a  porous 
shell  which  itself  is  usually  called  the  seed.  By  cracking 
these  "seeds"  the  real  seed  will  be  found  within,  at  the  an- 
gles, from  one  to  four  in  number,  and  when  broken,  if  fresh, 
appear  as  white  as  flour.  One  reason  why  a  portion  of  the 
seed  fails  to  vegetate,  is,  I  infer,  from  the  quantity  of  mois- 
ture necessary  to  reach  and  swell  the  encased  seed.  For  this 
reason,  if  planted  during  dry  srpells,  care  should  be  taken  to 


4$  CARROTS,    MANGOLDS    AXD    SUGAR    BEETS. 

get  them  down  to  a  good  depth,  say  an  inch  and  a  half  deep, 
and  then  to  pack  the  fine  earth  closely  over  them  so  that  it 
may  hold  the  moisture.  Any  machine,  therefore,  that  is  used 
for  planting  should  have  a  good  roller.  To  facilitate  and 
hasten  the  vegetation,  some  cultivators  practice  soaking  the 
seed,  by  pouring  on  water  when  almost  at  a  scalding  temper- 
ature, and  letting  the  seed  remain  in  it  from  thirty-six  to  for- 
ty-eight hours,  being  careful  to  keep  it  where  the  water  will 
not  fall  below  blood  heat,  then  rolling  plaster  or  dry  soil, 
until  it  is  sufficiently  dry  to  drop  readily  from  the  machine. 
Some  prefer  to  plant  by  hand,  believing  that  the  greater 
certainty  of  getting  the  seed  up  and  the  greater  regularity  of 
the  plants  in  the  row  is  more  than  an  off-set  to  the  addition- 
al labor.  In  doing  this  some  growers  will  drop  the  seed  on 
the  surface  by  the  machine,  and  then  follow  and  push  them 
under  to  the  depth  requisite,  with  the  thumb  and  finger; 
others  use  a  strip  of  plank  about  four  inches  wide  and  three 
feet  in  length,  on  the  under  side  of  which  are  inserted  wood- 
en pins,  every  seven  inches,  the  pins  being  one  and  a  quar- 
ter inches  in  diameter  and  projecting  two  inches.  The  holes 
having  been  made,  the  seed  are  dropped  in,  and  covered  by 
the  hand.  In  my  own  experience  I  rely  on  Mathew's  seed 
drill,  and  find  but  few  blank  places  after  the  plants  are  up, 
provided  the  weather  is  not  too  dry.  Where  blanks  are  found 
they  may  be  profitably  filled  by  transplanting  the  young  Man- 
golds, care  being  taken  to  break  off  the  tops  of  the  larger 
leaves,  and  also  to  loosen  the  ground  a  little  when  planting 
them.  If  a  time  just  after  a  shower  is  selected,  the  result 
will  be  very  satisfactory.  The  transplanted  roots  when  gath- 
ered in  the  Fall  will  usually  be  found  with  several  small  roots 
in  place  of  a  single  tap  root. 

)  All  root  crops  require  prompt  and  thorough  attention  in 
the  matter  of  weeding,  and  to  lessen  this  costly  department 
of  labor  they  should  not  be  raised  on  land  abounding  in  the 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS    AND    SUGAR    BEETS.  49 

seed  of  weeds.  Mangolds  will  require  two  or  three  hand 
weedings,  besides  as  many  slidings  with  the  scuffle  or  wheel- 
hoe.  If  too  thick  they  should  be  thinned  rather  early  in 
their  growth,  for  I  have  oftentimes  noticed  that  if  this  is  left 
until  the  roots  begin  to  develop,  those  left  standing  are 
apt  to  be  dwarfed.  It  is  best  to  give  two  thinnings.  The 
plants  should  be  left  from  ten  to  twelve  inches  apart ;  the 
crop  of  eighty  tons  was  thinned  to  twelve  inches  apart,  and 
as  the  roots  are  more  apt  to  grow  coarse  and  prongy,  and 
with  less  sugar  in  them,  when  far  apart,  I  am  inclined  to  ten 
or  twelve  inches  as  far  enough.  The  object  aimed  at  should 
be,  as  Prof.  Voelcker  has  shown,  to  get  the  weight  in  many 
roots  of  medium  size  rather  than  in  fewer  roots  of  large  size. 

GATHERING  AND  STORING  THE  CROP. 

Unlike  other  roots,  the  keeping  qualities  of  Mangolds 
are  destroyed  by  a  temperature  low  enough  to  but  little  more 
than  freeze  the  surface  of  the  ground.  In  the  late  Fall  when 
the  growth  is  about  completed,  these  much  exposed  roots  have 
but  few  leaves  to  protect  them  and  hence,  where  freezing 
weather  is  feared,  the  provident  farmer  will  always  give  them 
the  benefit  of  the  doubt.  If  he  is  so  unfortunate  as  to  have 
his  crop  injured,  let  him  at  once  get  the  most  he  can  out  of 
them,  in  the  way  of  food,  for  though  the  injury  at  first  may 
appear  to  be  but  trivial,  the  part  frozen  will  become  first 
corky  and  afterwards  turn  black,  and  ultimately  rot.  If  but 
slightly  frozen  the  frost  may  be  taken  out  by  at  once  cover- 
ing the  roots  temporarily  with  earth,  but  such  roots  must  be 
fed  early  or  they  will  rot.  Where  the  globe  or  ovoid  varie- 
ties are  grown,  on  land  where  they  pull  hard  they  may  be 
lifted  by  running  a  subsoil  plough  with  care.  In  pulling 
these,  or  any  roots  that  are  to  be  topped  on  the  field,  don't 
do,  as  is  usually  done,  either  scatter  them  on  the  surface, 


50  CARROTS,    MANGOLDS   AND    SUGAR    BEETS. 

without  any  system,  or  throw  them  into  heaps,  as  in  either 
way  the  cost  of  removing  the  tops  is  increased.  If  thrown 
in  piles  the  tops  become  more  or  less  intermingled,  and  the 
small  amount  of  extra  labor  thereby  caused  in  topping  each 
individual  root  becomes  great  in  the  aggregate,  when  thous- 
ands are  handled.  Still  it  oftentimes  happens  that  the  weath- 
er takes  a  sudden,  unexpected  turn,  threatening  too  low  a 
temperature  for  the  safety  of  the  crop  ;  under  such  circum- 
stances the  question  is  how  to  get  it  out  of  danger  in  the 
most  expeditious  way  possible.  The  quickest  way  is  to  pull 
and  throw  into  heaps,  roots  in,  tops  out,  by  which  arrange- 
ment, should  there  be  considerable  of  a  freeze  up,  the  tops 
would  shield  the  roots.  To  protect  them  still  more  effectual- 
ly earth  may  be  shovelled  over  the  heaps,  so  as  barely  to 
cover  them,  and  when  protected  in  this  way  they  may  be  al- 
lowed to  remain  quite  awhile  awaiting  the  leisure  of  the  far- 
mer. Here  let  me  say  that  this  plan  of  protection  will  not 
answer  for  all  crops,  as  I  have  learnt  with  Cabbages,  to  my 
sorrow,  for  when  covered  up  this  way,  but  for  a  few  days, 
when  taken  out  they  will  be  found  to  be  almost  cooked  by 
the  great  heat  which  they  have  developed. 

In  gathering  all  roots  the  great  object  is  to  have  as  few 
handlings  as  possible,  hence,  if  the  tops  are  not  twisted  off 
as  the  Mangolds  are  pulled,  they  should  be  laid  in  rows,  tops 
in  and  roots  out,  four  or  more  rows  being  put  in  one.  It  will 
be  best  to  have  two  hands  work  together,  and  so  make  two 
of  these  rows,  leaving  a  small  passage-way  between  them, 
the  roots  being  on  the  inside.  Now  let  the  topper  follotv 
with  a  large  and  sharp  knife,  and  lop  off  the  leaves  to  his 
right  and  left  as  he  goes  being  careful  to  so  top  the  roots 
that  each  individual  leaf  will  fall  separately,  which  means 
that  he  is  not  to  cut  the  top  of  the  root  itself,  for  unlike  Car- 
rots, Mangolds  so  cut  are  apt  to  decay  when  stored.  For 
economical  work  the  knife  should  be  a  larire  and  somewhat 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS   AND    SUGAR    BEETS.  5 1 

heavy  one,  the  blade  eight  or  nine  inches  in  length.  A  small 
grit  stone  for  the  use  of  each  of  the  hands  engaged  in  top- 
ping any  kind  of  roots  is  always  a  good  investment ;  it  saves 
running  to  the  barn  for  an  occasional  touch  on  the  grind- 
stone. 

If  the  roots  are  to  be  marketed  they  will  need  to  be  left 
awhile  to  have  the  earth  on  them  dry,  that  it  may  fall  off 
when  loading,  but  if  for  use  on  the  farm  it  will  be  rather  of 
an  advantage,  as  it  will  help  keep  them  from  wilting.  The 
portion  of  the  crop  to  be  fed  before  Spring  should  be  stored 
as  near  to  the  place  of  feeding  as  possible.  The  great  ob- 
ject should  be  to  keep  them  sufficiently  covered  and  cool  to 
prevent  wilting.  As  all  the  beet  family  are  good  keepers, 
there  need  be  but  a  small  per  cent,  of  loss.  Store  them  in  a 
cool,  rather  moist  cellar,  provided  it  has  no  standing  water. 
The  heap  may  be  three  or  four  feet  in  depth,  and  should  be 
covered  with  earth  that  is  rather  moist  than  otherwise,  to 
prevent  evaporation.  The  long  varieties  may  be  piled  cord- 
wood  fashion.  Those  to  be  fed  after  Spring  opens  can  be 
kept  in  a  pit,  dug  in  gravelly  soil,  on  a  hill-side,  or  where 
there  is  no  danger  from  standing  water ;  the  pit  may  be 
three  or  four  feet  in  depth,  and  be  filled  to  the  surface.  In 
covering  there  are  two  methods  :  one,  to  throw  the  earth  di- 
rectly on  the  roots,  and  the  other  to  first  cover  them  with 
cornstalks,  or  some  dry,  coarse  litter  before  throwing  on  the 
earth.  In  practice  I  find  that  when  the  litter  is  used  the  roots 
in  immediate  contact  with  it  are  apt  to  mould,  more  or  less, 
and  be  affected  with  a  dry  rot,  though  it  is  an  excellent  plan 
to  throw  over  coarse  litter  up  to  severe  freezing  weather. 
Which  ever  course  is  pursued  it  is  best  not  to  throw  on  more 
at  first  than  is  sufficient  to  barely  cover  them,  and  to  add 
the  remainder,  making  a  covering  of  about  two  feet  in 
depth  in  all ;  to  which  is  to  be  added  a  foot  of  coarse 
hay     as    the    weather    becomes    cold.        The     urocess    of 


52  CARROTS,  MANGOLDS  AND  SUGAR  BEETS. 

thatching  with  straw  and  so  piling  that  there  shall  be 
a  roof-like  slant  to  the  heap,  with  furnace-like  ventilators 
opening  from  it  at  intervals,  I  have  never  found  necessary 
in  actual  practice,  the  elevation  of  the  earth  above  the 
bed  being  a  sufficieut  water  shed,  while  the  cold  nature  of 
the  root  prevents  heating.  Rats  are  the  great  enemies  of 
root  pits.  I  have  had  galleries  cut  by  these  vermin  through 
a  bed  of  roots,  utterly  destroying  them  for  seed  purposes. 
The  best  way  of  killing  them  in  my  experience,  has  been  to 
drop  a  little  arsenic  on  buttered  bread  and  put  it  convenient- 
ly near  their  holes,  but  so  far  hidden  that  no  neighbors  dog 
would  be  likely  to  suffer  by  it. 

FEEDING  THE  CROP. 

Besides  arguments  which  are  of  weight  for  cultivation  of 
all  kind  of  roots,  there  are  special  ones  for  the  raising  of 
Mangolds.  The  vast  bulk  of  yield  exceeds  that  of  any 
annual  crop,  as  high  as  eighty  tons  of  roots  having  been 
raised  to  the  acre  on  the  sewerage  farms  of  England,  and 
when  to  this  is  added  the  weight  of  leaves  that  such  a  crop 
would  carry,  it  will  be  safe  to  say  that  a  hundred  tons  have 
been  given  to  the  acre.  Taken  as  a  whole  the  Mangold  has 
less  enemies  and  is  less  apt  to  fail  than  any  other  root. 
Compared  with  the  Turnip  family,  it  has  several  marked  ad- 
vantages, being  more  reliable  in  dry  seasons  and  less  liable 
to  disease  ;  and  in  flesh-forming,  heat-giving  and  fat-produc- 
ing elements  it  surpasses  it.  While  the  Turnip  family  cannot 
be  raised  repeatedly  on  the  same  land,  indeed  on  most  soil 
can  be  raised  only  at  intervals  of  three  or  four  years,  Man- 
golds can  be.  raised  many  years  in  succession,  as  Mr.  Mechi, 
the  distinguished  English  agriculturist,  has  proved  by  raising 
sixty  tons  per  annum  on  the  same  tract  of  land  of  six  acres 
area,  for  six  successive  years.     They  will  keep  longer  in  good 


CARROTS,  MANGOLDS  AND  SUGAR  BEETS.  53 

condition  than  any  other  root,  under  favorable  circumstances 
even  as  late  as  July.  Experiments  in  feeding  steers  made 
with  care,  proved  that  while  a  ton  of  Mangolds  increased 
their  weight  sixty-five  pounds,  a  ton  of  Swede  increased  their 
weight  but  forty-eight  pounds,  equal  quantities  of  hay  having 
been  fed  in  each  experiment.  Other  experiments  have  es- 
tablished about  the  same  proportionate  value  between  these 
two  roots,  though  the  general  result  was  not  as  favorable. 
Mangolds,  like  fruit,  undergo  a  ripening  change  after  they 
are  gathered,  and  until  this  is  effected  they  are  not  in  the 
best  condition  for  feeding.  The  ripening  process  for  the 
most  part  consists  in  a  change  of  starch  into  sugar,  and  makes 
the  Mangolds  both  more  healthful  and  more  nutritious  food. 
Before  this  change  is  effected  they  are  apt  to  scour  stock 
if  fed  to  any  degree  liberally.  The  time  when  this  chem- 
ical change  takes  place  will  depend  on  the  degree  of  ripe- 
ness of  the  crop  when  stored  ;  and  this,  as  has  been  clearly 
shown  is  affected  by  both  the  soil  on  which  they  grew  and  the 
manure  "with  which  they  were  fed  ;  other  conditions  equal, 
those  grown  on  upland  ripen  earlier  than  those  on  lowland, 
while  rank  manures  tend  to  prolong  the  period  of  growth  and 
crops  so  grown,  come  into  condition  for  feeding  later  in  the 
season.  In  England,  a  common  piactice  is  to  begin  feeding 
the  Mangolds  at  Christmas,  while  in  this  country  the  middle 
of  January  is  considered  early  enough.  Experiments  careful- 
ly made  have  proved  that  when  fed  to  fattening  animals  they 
should  follow  and  not  precede  Turnips.  It  is  a  good  rule  in 
feeding  this  as  with  other  roots  or  tubers,  to  begin  with  a  smal] 
quantity  and  gradually  increase  the  amount  up  to  the  limit 
which  the  appetite  of  the  cow,  her  general  health  and  the  tale 
of  the  milk  pail  indicates.  Every  farmer  who  feeds  a  dairy 
needs  a  root  cutter.  There  are  several  of  these  in  the  market, 
some  designed  for  sheep  only,  which  cut  the  roots  into  small 
pieces.,  others  for  neat  cattle,  while  some   manufactured  by 


54 


CARROTS,  MANGOLDS  AND  SUGAR  DEETS. 


our  Canada  neighbors  can  be  arranged  to  cut  for  either  class 
of  stock.  As  good  a  one  as  I  know  of  for  stock  purposes, 
cheapness,  durability  and  effectiveness  combined,  is  one 
sometimes  known  as  the  Whittemore  machine,  of  which  I 
present  an  engraving.      This  machine  is  capable  of  cutting 

about  two  bushels 
a  minute.  Exper- 
iments in  England 
have  shown  that  5  9 
pounds  of  cooked 
Mangolds  are 
equal  to  70  of  un- 
cooked ;  but  that 
meat  made  from 
steamed  food 
wastes  more  when 
boiled.  Leaves  of 
Mangolds  should 
be  fed  with  care 
as  they  are  more 
apt  to  scour  than 
those  of  any  other 
whittemore  cutter.  root.     The  reason 

of  this  is  that  they  contain  comparatively  a  large  quantity  of 
■b  poisonous  acid,  known  by  chemists  as  "oxalic"  acid,  the 
same  that  is  developed  in  Rhubarb  leaves,  when  slightly  wilt- 
ed, and  which  sometimes  causes  death  when  such  leaves  are 
eaten  as  "greens." 

The  practice  sometimes  followed  in  Europe,  of  feeding 
the  leaves  of  the  growing  crop,  where  labor  is  very  cheap,  is 
thought  to  pay,  as  the  leaves  are  gathered  just  as  they  begin 
to  drop  from  their  upright  position  and  when  their  usefulness 
as  nourishers  of  the  root  have  ended.  But  with  labor  as 
cheap  as  may  be,  there  is  no  economy  in  this,  for,  aside  from 


CARROTS,  MANGOLDS  AND  SUGAR  BEETS.  5- 

the  deleterious  effects  to  animals,  when  fed  too  liberally,  by 
actual  experiment  it  has  been  found  that  the  wear  and  tear 
to  the  crop,  incidental  to  the  plucking  of  these  leaves  by  an 
average  farm  hand,  injures  it  more  than  the  value  of  the 
leaves  after  they  are  gathered. 

Were  it  not  for  the  enormous  bulk  that  an  acre  will  pro- 
duce in  roots  when  compared  with  its  yield  in  hay  or  grain, 
there  would  be  a  serious  argument  against  the  growing  of 
them  to  any  extent  beyond  what  might  be  needed  for  medic- 
inal purposes,  in  the  fact  that  the  manure  made  from  them 
is  of  so  low  a  value ;  and  the  practical  weight  of  this  argu- 
ment would  grow  in  proportion  as  farmers  acquire  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  most  important  department  of  farming.  To 
most  farmers  a  cord  or  load  of  manure  of  cow  or  horse  is  a 
cord  or  load  of  equal  value  ;  now  this  is  far,  very  far  from 
being  the  fact,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  table  which  I 
take  from  the  Scientific  Farme?-,  compiled  by  the  celebrated 
Mr.  Lewis,  who,  by  his  careful  experiments  has  laid  the  agri- 
cultural world  under  lasting  obligation.  In  this  table  a  ton 
of  English  hay  is  taken  as  the  standard,  and  were  all  the  ma- 
nure saved,  both  solid  and  liquid,  from  a  ton  of  each  of  these 
varieties  of  food,  the  ingredients  at  the  market  value  of  the 
Ammonia,  Potash  and  Phosphoric  Acid  would  be  worth  as 
follows  : — 

Hay,              -  -              -                                -           $10.00 

Clover  Hay,  -                                           -                       15.00 

Oat  Straw,  -              -                -                -           -      4.50 

Wheat  Straw,  -              -                            -                             4.16 

Barley  Straw,  -                -              -           -         -           3.50 

Decorticated  Cotton  Seed  Cake,     -         -  -             43-33 

Linseed  Cake,  -                                         -         -      30.66 

i  Malt  Dust,  -                          ....          28.33 

IMalt.              -  ■-,,•..     10.50 


56  CARROTS,    MANGOLDS    AND    SUGAR    BEETS. 

Oats,        -  -             -             -             -         11.50 

Wheat,             .  -             -             -             -               11.00 

Indian  Corn,  -              -              -              -         10.50 

Barley,  *              -              -     9.83 

Potatoes,  -              -              -              -             2.33 

Mangolds,      -  -                            -              -              -      1.66 

Swedes,     -  -  .           -                           -             -         1.41 

Turnips,  (common.)      -  -              -                1.33 

Carrots,          -  -              -              -              -                      1.33 

This  table  is  very  suggestive  in  many  ways  : — by  it  we  see. 
that  there  are  varieties  of  food,  the  manure  from  which  is 
worth  more  than  the  cost  of  the  food  itself.  In  its  appli- 
cation to  the  feeding  of  Mangolds,  it  at  a  glance  suggests 
the  wisdom  of  feeding  at  the  same  time  a  portion  of  some- 
thing richer  and  more  concentrated.  By  so  doing  the  qual- 
ity of  the  manure  is  vastly  improved  and  the  crops  will  not 
be  slow  to  discover  it.  There  is  still  another  reason  for 
feeding  these  rich  foods  while  using  roots ;  it  enables  the 
armer  to  feed  with  profit  Lis  straw  or  inferior  varieties  of 
hay.  Says  Prof.  Stockhardt,  "the  full  benefit  to  animals  de- 
rivable from  feeding  roots  is  secured  only  when  the  pro- 
per proportion  of  substances  rich  in  nitrogen  are  fed  with 
them ;  accordingly,  about  two  pounds  of  oil-cake  should  be 
fed  with  each  hundred  pounds  of  beet  root,  or  other  foods 
may  be  substituted  in  the  same  proportion  as  they  are  rich 
in  nitrogen." 

Recent  researches  have  determined  a  fact  of  great  value 
to  agriculture  ;  that  to  get  the  most  profitable  results  from 
food  the  Albuminoid  and  Carbohydrate  elements  should 
bear  a  certain  proportion  to  each  other,  and  that  while  a  de- 
crease in  either  of  them  from  this  proper  proportion  means 
insufficient  food,  and  a  consequent  loss  of  flesh,  fat  or  milk, 
an  excess  of  either  means  money  wasted.  The  proportion 
for  cows  that  are  dry  and  oxen  when  not  at   work,  is  about, 


CARROTS,  MANGOLDS  AND  SUGAR  BEETS. 


57 


one  of  Albuminoids  to  eight  of  Carbohydrates ;  for  oxen  at 
work  and  cows  in  milk,  one  of  Albuminoids  to  from  four  to 
six  of  Carbohydrates. 

The  following  table  taken  from  Prof.  Johnson's  excellent 
work,  "How  Crops  Grow,"  gives  the  proportion  of  the  Albu- 
minoids, Carbohydrates  and  other  elements  in  roots  and 
tubers. 


0  ^ 

"S  i 

rt  £2 

tC  rt 

< 

-6 
"0 

E 

Carbohy- 
drates, 

u 

J 

da 
12 

ROOTS  AND  TUBERS. 

POTATO. 

95-0 

24.I 

0.9 

2 

O 

21 

0 

I.I 

0 

3 

JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE. 

80 

0 

18 

9 

1.1  . 

2 

O 

J5 

6 

J-3 

0 

5 

KOHL-RABI. 

83 

0 

IO 

8 

1  2 

2 

3 

7 

3 

1.2 

0 

2 

FIELD  BEETS,  (3  lbs.  weight). 

88 

0 

II 

1 

0.9 

1 

9 

1 

0.9 

0 

1 

SUGAR  BEETS.  (1  to  2  lbs.) 

81 

5 

J7 

7 

0.8 

0 

J5 

4 

1-3 

0 

1 

RUTA  BAGAS,  (about  3  lbs.) 

87 

0 

12 

0 

1.0 

6 

9 

3 

1.1 

0 

1 

CARROT,  (about  1-2  lb.) 

85 

0 

J4 

0 

1.0 

5 

10 

8 

1-7 

0 

- 

GIANT  CARROT.  (1  to  2  lbs.) 

87 

0 

12 

2 

o.S 

2 

9 

8 

1.2 

0 

2 

TURNIPS. 

92 

0 

7 

2 

o.S 

1 

5 

1 

1.0 

0 

* 

PARSNIP. 

83 

3 

» 

0 

0.7 

6 

8 

4 

1.0 

0 

2 

PUMPKIN. 

94 

5 

4 

5 

1.0 

3 

2 

8 

1.0 

0 

1 

To  give  the  tables  necessary  to  develop  this  interesting 
subject  to  its  full  capacity,  would  be  altogether  beyond  the 
scope  of  my  little  treatise.  I  will  refer  my  readers  to  the 
appendix  of  that  excellent  work  by  Prof.  Johnson,  "How 
Crops  Grow." 


THE  COST  OF  THE  CROP. 

An  average  crop  of  Mangolds  ma}-  be  set  down  at  22 
tons.  To  grow  this  crop  would  cost  the  farmer  who  depends 
on  barn  manure  mainly,  about  as  follows  : — 


58  CARROTS,    MAXGOLDS    AND    SUGAR    BEETS. 

DEBTOR. 

Ploughing  twice,  harrowing  and  dragging, 

Seed, — 4  lbs.,         - 

Planting,         -  -  -  -  -  - 

Sliding,  weeding  and  thinning  crop, 
Gathering,  topping  and  storing, 
Manure,  and  handling  of  7  cords, 
Refuse  salt,  16  bushels,  at  $1.25  per  hogshead, 
Interest,  taxes  and  wear  and  tear  of  implements  and 
teams,  - 


Total  cost,  $114.50 

CREDITOR. 

By  crop  of  22  tons  roots,  at  $8.50  per  ton,  -         $187.00 

"  tops, — 4  tons,  at  $5.00,              -  -         20.00 

"  value  of  manure  left  in  soil,            -  14.00 


£9 

.00 

3 

.00 

1 

.00 

16. 

,00 

12, 

.00 

56 

.00 

2, 

■5° 

*5 

.00 

221.00 

114.50 


Balance,  $106.50 

In  the  sibove  estimate  I  have  assumed  most  of  the  labor 
to  be  by  boys,  who  at  hand  weeding,  if  they  are  reliable, 
can  get  over  the  ground  faster  than  men.  I  have  made  no 
allowance  for  the  cost  of  cutting  up  the  roots  when  feeding, 
as  this  does  not  belong  under  this  head.  Should  the  land  be 
old  the  item  of  weeding  would  have  to  be  increased  one-half. 
The  salt  I  have  priced  at  its  cost  along  the  sea-coast.  I 
have  estimated  the  value  of  the  crop  at  the  average  value  of 
several  years  past,  while  the  manure  charge  is  much  higher 
than  it  should  be  where  farmers  have  access  to  the  fertiliz- 
ing wastes  of  great  cities. 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS    AND    SUGAR    BEETS.  59 

Now,  if  instead  of  being  contented  with  a  crop  of  22  tons 
to  the  acre,  the  farmer  strives  for  double  that  quantity,  he 
will  get  it  by  additional  expense  in  but  two  directions,  viz. : 
his  manure  bill  and  the  cost  of  gathering  and  storing.  If 
we  now  double  the  cost  of  each  of  the  latter,  and  credit  the 
results  with  double  the  crop,  which  every  practical  farmer 
who  has  had  experience  in  root  culture  will  allow  is  but  rea- 
sonable, we  shall  have  the  following  results  : — > 

Extra  cost  of  crop  of  44  tons  over  one  of   22  : 
Manure, —  7  cords,  -  $56.00 

Gathering,  topping  and  storing,  -  -       12.00 


$68.00 


Now  adding  the  credit  side  we  shall  have  for 

Sxtra  22  tons  roots,             -  $187.00 

6  tons  tops,         --___  30.00 

Value  of  manure  left  in  ground,         -  -      14.00 


$231.00 
Deduct  extra  cost,  68.00 


Profits  cleared,  $163,00 

In  other  words,  by  investing  $68.00  for  six  months,  we 
clear  $163.00,  which,  as  any  farmer  boy  can  figure,  is  at  the 
rate  of  about  five  hundred  per  cent,  a  year.  Mr.  Fearing  of 
Hingham,  with  the  same  amount  of  manure  raised  over  sixty 
tons  to  the  acre,  and  the  instances  are  numerous  where  over 
forty  tons  have  been  the  crop  when  even  a  less  quantity  has 
been  used.  Can  any  farmer  who  has  accumulated  a  small  sur- 
plus of  money  do  better  than  invest  it  in  manure  ?  There  is 
altogether  too  much  money,  for  the  prosperity  of  their  farm- 
ing, invested  by  farmers  in  Savings  Banks.  These  banks  pay 
from  six  to  seven  per  cent,  on  money,  but  here  is  an  instance 
where  an  investment  made  in  manure  pays  over  four  hundred 


'6o  CARROTS,    MANGOLDS    AND    SUGAR    BEETS. 

per  cent.  Merchants  don't  do  so  foolish  a  thing  as  to  put 
their  earnings  into  Savings  Banks.  No  ;  they  invest  in  their 
business  and  so  keep  it  and  its  money  making  capacity  un- 
der their  own  control ;  when  will  farmers  be  as  wise  and  be- 
come their  own  bankers?  Let  me  remark  that  the  farmer 
who  is  so  wise  as  to  attempt  to  get  the  most  from  his  land 
will  do  well  to  follow  Prof.  Voelcker's  advice  and  drill  in  four 
or  five  hundred  weight  of  some  good  phosphate,  to  the  acre, 
in  place  of  the  same  value  in  stable  manure. 

In  the  above  estimates  of  the  value  of  Mangolds  we  have 
assumed  that  the  farmer  sold  his  crop.  Now  it  is  true  of  this 
as  of  every  other  crop  that  the  farmer  can  use  on  his  prem- 
ises, that  it  is  of  more  value  to  him  than  the  general  market 
price  indicates. 

Under  this  head  an  intelligent  farmer  of  large  experi- 
ence writes  : — 

"From  experiments  made  in  feeding  bee.ts,  their  practi- 
cal value  has  been  made  to  range  from  13  to  20  cents  per 
bushel,  with  hay  at  twenty  dollars  per  ton.  An  exact  esti- 
mate of  the  practical  value  of  beets  for  cattle  food,  is  a  dif- 
ficult matter,  as  it  is  now,  and  ever  will  be,  hid  from  mortal 
ken.  The  improved  condition  of  the  cow,  (when  fed  to 
cows  during  the  winter,)  her  increased  usefulness  during  the 
entire  season,  her  lessened  liability  to  sickness  and  disease 
which  high  feeding  with  any  one  of  the  different  kinds  of 
grain  induces,  her  lengthened  lease  of  life,  her  evident  satis- 
faction and  perfect  contentment,  which  is  so  plainly  mani- 
fested while  eating  her  daily  ration  of  roots,  are  each  and 
every  one  legitimate  items  to  be  taken  into  the  account  in 
estimating  the  practical,  the  actual  value  of  beets  as  food  for 
dairy  stock. 

"After  carefully  looking  at  the  subject  in  all  its  bear- 
ings, so  far  as  my  experience  has  given  me  opportunity  to 
do  so,  I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  beets  for  cattle 


CARROTS,    MANGOLDS   AND    SUGAR   BEETS.  6 1 

food  are  well  worth  fully  as  many  cents  per  bushel  as  good 
hay  is  worth  dollars  per  ton,  without  taking  into  considera- 
tion the  increase  of  the  manure  ;  and  that  the  average  cost, 
when  stored  in  the  cellar  or  put  into  pits,  with  every  item  of 
expense  included,  need  not  exceed  eight  cents  per  bushel." 
I  will  close  my  little  treatise  by  remarking  that  while  I 
cannot  expect  to  have  exhausted  so  prolific  a  subject,  yet  I 
hope  and  trust  that  it  may  prove  of  value  as  a  guide  and  a 
stimulus  to  some  of  my  many  friends  in  the  great  community 
of  farmers. 


CABBAGES: 


HO\Y     TO     GROW     THEM 


a   rr.ACTicAr, 


ftjXtutiBt  an  Cabbage  €nltnxt, 


GIVING    FULL   DETAIL^    OX    EVERY    POINT,    INCLUDING 
KEEPING    AND    MARKETING    THE    CROP. 


JAMES  J.  H.  GREGORY, 

INTKODUX'EIt  OK  THE   MAUBLEHEAD   CABBAGES. 


MARBLEHEAD  : 

MESSENGER    STEAM   PRINTING    HOUSE. 
I883. 


Entered    according   to  Act  of  Congress,  in   the  year   1870,  b; 

JAMES    J.    IT.    GREGORY, 

At  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Massachusetts. 


c o n  t entb 


Pa  ye. 

Object  of  Treatise 3 

The  Origin  of  Cabbage 3 

What  a  Cabbage  is 4 

Selecting  the    Soil 0 

Preparing  the  Soil 7 

The  Manure 8 

How  to  Apply  the  Manure 10 

Making  the  Hills  and  Planting 

the  Seed 12 

Care  of  the  Young  Plants 16 

Protecting  the  Plants  from  their 

Enemies 18 

The  Green  Worm 21 

Club  or  Stump  Foot 22 

Care  of  the  Growing  Crop 27 

Marketing  the  Crop 28 

Keeping  Cabbages  through  the 

Winter. 30 

Having  Cabbage  Make  Heads  in 

Winter 36 

Varieties  of  Cabbage 38 

Early  York 40 

Large  York 40 

Early  Oxheart 41 

Early  Sugar  Loaf 41 

Early  Winnigstadt 41 

Red    Dutch 42 

Red  Drumhead 42 

The  Little  Pixie  43 

Early  Sehweinfurt,  or 

Schweinfurt  Quintal 44 

Early  Wakefield 45 

Early  Wyman 45 

Premium  Flat  Dutch 46 

Early  Low  Dutch 47 

Stone  Mason 47 

Large  Late  Drumhead ...  48 

Marblehead   Mammoth 49 

American  Green  Glazed.   ...  50 


Pane.. 

Fot tier's  Early  Drumhead 50 

Bergen  Drumhead 51 

Cannon  Ball 51 

Savoy  Cabbage r 52 

Drumhead  Savoy '. 52 

Pancalier • 53 

'  Early  Ulm  Savoy 53 

Early  Dwarf  Savoy 54 

Improved  American  Savoy 54 

Golden  Savoy 54 

Norwegian  Savoy 54 

Victoria,  Russian,  Cape  Savoys  55 

Feather  Stemmed  Savoy 55 

Large  Brunswick  Short  Stem'd  55 

Early  Empress 55 

Robinson's    Champion    Ox 

Drumhead 55 

English  Winnigstadt 53 

Blenheim 55 

Shillings   Queen 55 

Carter's  Superfine  Early  Dwarf  55 

Enfield  Market  Improved 50 

Kemp's  Incomparable 56 

Fielderkraut 56 

Ramsay's  Winter  Drumhead. .  56 

Pomeranian  Cabbage 56 

Alsacian  Cabbage 56 

Marbled  Burgogne 56 

Early  Dutch  Drumhead 56 

Cabbage  Greens 56 

Cabbage  for  Stock 58 

Raising  Cabbage  Seed 61 

Cooking  Cabbage,  Sour  Krout, 

etc 62 

Cabbage  Under  Glass 64 

Cold  Frame  and  Hot  Bed 66 

Cauliflower,   Broccoli,  Brussels 
Sprouts,  Kale  and  Sea  Kale. .  68 


OBJECT    OF    THIS    TREATISE. 

As  a  general  yet  very  thorough  response  to  inquiries 
from  many  of  my  customers  about  cabbage  raising,  I 
have  aimed  in  this  treatise  to  tell  them  all  about  the 
subject.  The  different  inquiries  made  from  time  to  time 
have  given  me  a  pretty  clear  idea  of  the  many  heads 
under  which  information  is  wanted  ;  and  it  has  been  my 
aim  to  give  this  with  the  same  thoroughness  of  detail 
as  in  my  little  work  on  Squashes.  I  have  endeavored 
to  talk  in  a  very  practical  way,  drawing  from  a  large 
observation  and  experience,  and  receiving,  in  describing 
varieties,  some  valuable  information  from  Mcintosh's 
work,  "  The  Book  of  the  Garden." 

THE    ORIGIN    OF    CABBAGE. 

Botanists  tell  us  that  all  of  the  Cabbage  family,  which 
includes  not  only  every  variety  of  cabbage,  lied,  White, 
and  Savoy,  but  all  the  cauliflower,  broccoli,  kale,  and 
brusscls  sprouts,  had  their  origin  in  the  wild  cabbage  of 
Europe,  (Brassica  oleracea,')  a  plant  with  green,  wavy 
leaves,  much  resembling  charlock,  found  growing  wild 
at  Dover  in  England,  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  This 
plant,  says  Mcintosh,  is  mostly  confined  to  the  sea 
shore,  and  grows  only  on  chalky  or  calcareous  soils. 

Thus  through  the  wrisdom  of  the  Great  Father  of  us 
all,  who  occasionally  in  his  great  garden  allows  vegeta- 
bles to  sport  into  a  higher  form  of  life,  and  grants  to 
some  of  these  sports  sufficient  strength  of  individuality 
to  enable  them  to  perpetuate  themselves,  and  at  times  to 


4  CABBAGES,    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM,    ETC. 

blend  their  individuality  with  that  of  other  sports,  we 
have  the  heading  cabbage  in  its  numerous  varieties,  the 
creamy  cauliflower,  the  feathery  kale,  the  curled  savoy. 
On  my  own  grounds  from  a  strain  of  seed  that  had  been 
grown  isolated  for  years,  there  recently  came  a  plant  that 
in  its  structure  closely  resembled  Brussels  Sprouts,  grow- 
ing about  two  feet  in  height,  with  a  small  head  under  each 
leaf.  The  cultivated  cabbage  was  first  introduced  into 
England  by  the  Romans,  and  from  there  nearly  all  the 
kinds  cultivated  in  this  country  were  originally  brought. 
Those  which  we  consider  as  peculiarly  American  varie- 
ties, have  only  been  made  so  by  years  of  careful  improve- 
ment on  the  original  imported  sorts.  The  characteristics 
of  these  varieties  will  be  given  farther  on. 

WHAT    A    CABBAGE    IS.. 

If  we  cut  vertically  through  the  middle  of  the  head, 
we  shall  find  it  made  up  of  successive  layers  of  leaves, 
which  grow  smaller  und  smaller,  almost  ad  infinitum. 
Now  if  we  take  a  fruit  bud  from  an  apple  tree  and  make 
a  similar  section  of  it,  we  shall  find  the  same  structure. 
If  we  observe  the  development  of  the  two,  as  Spring 
advances,  we  shall  find  another  similarity  (the  looser 
the  head  the  closer  will  be  the  resemblance), — the  outer 
leaves  of  each  will  unwrap  and  unfold,  and  a  blossom 
stem  will  push  out  from  each.  Hence  we  see  that  a 
cabbage  is  a  bud,  a  seed  bud,  as  all  fruit  buds  may  be 
termed,  the  production  cf  seed  being  the  primary  object 
in  nature,  the  fruit  enclosing  it  playing  but  a  secondary 
part,  the  office  of  the  leaves  being  to  cover,  protect,  and 
afterwards  nourish  the  young  seed  shoot.  The  outer 
leaves  which  surround  the  head  appear  to  have  the  same 
office  as  the  leaves  which  surround  the  growing  fruit 
bud,  and  that   office  closes  with  the  first  year,  as  does 


CABBAGES,    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM,    ETC.  5 

that  of  the  leaves  surrounding  fruit  buds,  when  each 
die  and  drop  off.  In  my  locality  the  public  must  have 
perceived  more  or  less  clearly  the  analogy  between  the 
heads  of  cabbage  and  the  buds  of  trees,  for  when  they 
speak  of  small  heads  they  frequently  call  them  "  buds." 
That  the  close  wrapped  leaves  which  make. the  cabbage 
head  and  surround  the  seed  germ,  situated  just  in  the 
middle  of  the  head  at  the  termination  of  the  stump,  are 
necessary  for  its  protection  and  nutrition  when  young, 
is  proved,  I  think,  by  the  fact  that  those  cabbages  the 
heads  of  which  are  much  decayed,  when  set  out  for 
seed,  no  matter  how  sound  the  seed  germ  may  be  at  the 
end  of  the  stump,  never  make  so  large  or  healthy  a  seed 
shoot  as  those  do  the  heads  of  which  arc  sound  ;  as  a 
rule,  after  pushing  a  feeble  growth,  they  die. 

For  this  reason  I  believe  that  the  office  of  the  head  is 
similar  to  and  as  necessary  as  that  of  the  leaves  which 
unwrap  from  around  the  blossom  buds  of  our  fruit  trees. 
It  is  true  that  the  parallel  cannot  be  fully  maintained, 
as  the  leaves  which  make  up  the  cabbage  head  do  not  to 
an  equal  degree  unfold,  (particularly  is  this  true  of 
hard  heads)  ;  yet  they  exhibit  a  vitality  of  their  own, 
which  is  seen  in  the  deeper  green  color  the  outer  leaves 
soon  attain,  and  the  change  from  tenderness  to  tough- 
ness in  their  structure  ;  I  think,  therefore,  that  the 
degree  of  failure  in  the  parallel  may  be  measured  by  the 
difference  between  a  higher  and  a  lower  form  of  organic 
life.     • 

Some  advocate  the  economy  of  cutting  off  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  heads  when  cabbages  are  set  out  for  seed  to 
use  as  food  for  stock.  There  is  certainly  a  great  temp- 
tation, standing  amid  acres  of  large,  solid  heads  in  the 
early  Spring  months,  when   green  food   of  all  kinds  is 


6  CABBAGES,    HOW   TO    GROW   THEM,    ETC. 

scarce,  to  cut  and  use  such  an  immense  amount  of  rich 
food,  which,  to  the  inexperienced  eye,  appears  to  be 
utterly  wasted  if  left  to  decay,  dry,  and  fall  to  the 
ground ;  but,  for  the  reason  given  above,  I  have  never 
done  so.  It  is  possible  that  large  heads  may  bear  trim- 
ming to  a  degree  without  injury  to  the  seed  crop  ;  yet  I 
should  consider  this  an  experiment,  and  one  to  be  tried 
with  a  good  deal  of  caution. 

SELECTING    THE    SOIL. 

In  some  of  the  best  cabbage  growing  sections  of  the 
country,  until  within  a  comparatively  few  years  it  was 
the  very  general  belief  that  cabbage  would  not  do  well 
on  upland.  Accordingly  the  cabbage  patch  would  be 
found  on  the  lowest  tillage  land  of  the  farm.  No  doubt, 
the  lowest  soil  being  the  richer  from  a  gradual  accumu- 
lation of  the  wash  from  the  upland,  when  manure  was 
but  sparingly  used,  cabbage  would  thrive  better  there 
than  elsewhere, —  and  not,  as  was  generally  held,  because 
that  vegetable  needed  more  moisture  than  any  other 
crop.  Cabbage  can  be  raised  with  success  on  any  good 
corn  land,  provided  such  land  is  well  manured  ;  and 
there  is  no  more  loss  in  seasons  of  drouth  on  such 
land  than  there  is  in  seasons  of  excessive  moisture  on 
the  lower  tillage  land  of  the  farm.  I  wish  I  could  preach 
a  very  loud  sermon  to  all  my  farmer  friends  on  the 
great  value  of  liberal  manuring  to  carry  crops  success- 
fully through  the  effects  of  a  severe  drouth.  Crops  on 
soil  precisely  alike,  with  but  a  wall  to  separate  them, 
will  in  a  very  dry  season  present  a  striking  difference, — 
the  one  being  in  fine  vigor,  and  the  other  "  suffering 
from  drouth,"  as  the  owner  will  tell  you,  but  in  reality 
from  want  of  food. 


ETC. 


The  smaller  varieties  of  cabbage  will  thrive  well  on 
either  light  or  strong  soil,  but  the  largest  drumheads  do 
best  on  strong  soil.  For  the  Brassica  family,  including 
cabbages,  cauliflowers,  turnips,  etc.,  there  is  no  soil  so 
suitable  as  freshly  turned  sod,  provided  the  surface  is 
well  fined  by  the  harrow,  and  it  is  well  to  have  as  stout 
a  crop  of  clover  or  grass,  growing  on  this  sod  when 
turned  under  as  possible  ;  and  I  incline  to  the  belief  that 
it  would  be  a  judicious  investment  to  start  a  thick 
growth  of  these  by  the  application  of  guano  to  the  sur- 
face sufficiently  long  before  turning  the  sod  to  allow 
for  its  effects  on  the  growth  of  the  clover  or  grass.  If 
the  soil  be  very  sandy  in  character,  I  would  advise  that 
the  variety  planted  be  the  Winnigstadt,  which  in  my 
experience  is  unexcelled  for  making  a  hard  head  under 
almost  any  conditions,  however  unpropitious.  Should 
the  soil  be  naturally  very  wet  it  should  be  underdrained, 
or  stump  foot  will  be  very  likely  to  appear,  which  is 
death  to  all  success. 

PREPARING    THE    SOIL. 

Should  the  soil  be  a  heavy  clay,  a  deep  Fall  ploughing 
is  best,  that  the  frosts  of  Winter  may  disintegrate  it ; 
and  should  the  plan  be  to  raise  an  early  crop,  this  end 
will  be  promoted  by  Fall  ploughing,  on  any  soil,  as  the 
land  will  thereby  be  made  dryer  in  early  Spring.  In 
New  England  the  soil  for  cabbages  should  be  ploughed 
as  deep  as  the  subsoil,  and  the  larger  drumheads  should 
be  planted  only  on  the  deepest  soil.  If  the  season 
should  prove  a  favorable  one,  a  good  crop  of  cabbage 
may  be  grown  on  sod  broken  up  immediately  after  a 
crop  of  hay  has  been  taken  from  it,  provided  plenty  of 
fine   manure   is   harrowed  in.     One   great  risk  here  is 


8        CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC. 

from  the  dry  weather  that  usually  prevails  at  that 
season,  preventing  the  prompt  germination  of  the  seed, 
or  rooting  of  the  plants.  It  is  prudent  in  such  a  case 
to  have  a  good  stock  of  plants,  that  such  as  die  may  be 
promptly  replaced. 

The  manure  may  be  spread  on  the  surface  of  either 
sod  or  stubble  land  and  ploughed  under,  or  be  spread 
on  the  surface  after  ploughing  and  thoroughly  worked 
into  the  soil  by  the  gang  plough  or  cultivator.  On 
ploughed  sod  I  have  found  nothing  so  satisfactory  as 
the  class  of  wheel  harrows,  which  not  only  cut  the  ma- 
nure up  fine  and  work  it  well  under,  but  by  the  same 
operation  can  be  made  to  cut  and  pulverize  the  turf  until 
the  sod  is  left  not  over  an  inch  in  thickness.  To  do  the 
work  thus  thoroughly  requires  a  yoke  of  oxen  or  a  pair 
of  stout  horses.  All  large  stones  and  large  pieces  of 
turf  that  are  torn  up  and  brought  to  the  surface  should 
be  carted  off  before  making  the  hills. 

THE    MANURE. 

Any  manure  but  hog  manure  for  cabbage, — barn  ma- 
nure, rotten  kelp,  night  soil,  guano,  phosphates,  wood 
ashes,  fish,  salt,  glue  waste,  hen  manure,  slaughter-house 
manure.  I  have  used  all  of  these,  and  found  them  all 
good  when  rightly  applied.  If  pure  hog  manure  is  used 
it  is  apt  to  produce  that  corpulent  enlargement  of  the 
roots  known  in  different  localities  as  "  stump  foot," 
"  underground  head,"  "  finder  and  thumb."  I  have 
found  barn  manure  on  which  hogs  have  run,  two  hogs 
to  each  animal,  excellent.  The  cabbage  is  the  rankest 
of  feeders,  and  to  perfect  the  larger  sort  a  most  liberal 
allowance  of  the  richest  composts  is  required.  To  grow 
the  smaller  varieties  either  barn-yard   manure,  guano, 


CABBAGES,    HOW    TO    GROW   THEM,    ETC.  9 

phosphates,  or  wood  ashes,  if  the  soil  be  in  good  condi- 
tion, will  answer  ;  though  the  richer  and  more  abundant 
the  manure  the  larger  are  the  cabbages,  and  the  earlier 
the  crop  will  mature. 

To  perfect  the  large  varieties  of  drumhead — by  which 
I  mean  to  make  them  grow  to  the  greatest  size  possible — 
I  want  a  strong  compost  of  barn-yard  manure,  with 
night  soil  and  muck,  and,  if  possible,  rotten  kelp.  A 
compost  into  which  night  soil  enters  as  a  component  is 
best  made  by  first  covering  a  plot  of  ground  of  easy 
access,  with  soil  or  muck  that  has  been  exposed  to  a 
winter's  frost,  to  the  depth  of  about  eighteen  inches, 
and  raising  around  this  a  rim  about  three  feet  in  height, 
and  thickness.  Into  this  the  night  soil  is  poured  from 
carts  built  for  the  purpose,  until  the  receptacle  is  about 
two-thirds  full.  Barn  manure  is  now  added,  being- 
dropped  around  and  covering  the  outer  rim,  and  if  the 
supply  is  sufficient,  on  the  top  of  the  heap  also,  on 
which  it  can  be  carted  after  cold  weather  sets  in.  Early 
in  Spring  the  entire  mass  should  be  pitched  over, 
thoroughly  broken  up  with  the  bar  and  pick  where 
frozen,  and  the  frozen  masses  thrown  on  the  surface. 
In  pitching  over  the  mass  work  the  rim  in  towards  the 
middle  of  the  heap.  After  the  frozen  lumps  have 
thawed  give  the  heap  another  pitching  over,  aiming  to 
mix  all  the  materials  thoroughly  together,  and  make 
the  entire  mass  as  line  as  possible.  A  covering  of  sand 
thrown  over  the  heap  before  the  last  pitching  will  help 
fine  it. 

To  produce  a  good  crop  of  cabbages  with  a  compost 
of  this  quality,  from  live  to  twelve  cords  will  be  required 
to  the  acre.  If  the  land  is  in  good  heart  by  previous 
high  cultivation,   or  the   soil  is  naturally   very  strong, 


10       CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC. 

five  cords  will  give  a  fair  crop  of  the  small  varieties ; 
while,  with  the  same  conditions,  from  nine  to  twelve 
cords  to  the  acre  will  be  required  to  perfect  the  largest 
variety  grown,  the  Marblehead  Mammoth  Drumhead. 

Of  the  other  kinds  of  manure  named  above  I  will 
treat  farther  under  the  head  of 

HOW    TO    APPLY    THE    MANURE. 

The  manure  is  sometimes  applied  wholly  in  the  hill, 
at  other  times  partly  broadcast  and  partly  in  the  hill. 
If  the  farmer  desires  to  make  the  utmost  use  of  his  ma- 
nure for  that  season,  it  will  be  best  to  put  most  of  it  into 
the  hill,  particularly  if  his  supply  runs  rather  short ; 
but  if  he  desires  to  leave  his  land  in  good  condition  for 
next  year's  crop,  he  had  better  use  part  of  it  broadcast. 
My  own  practice  is  to  use  all  my  rich  compost  broadcast, 
and  depend  on  guano,  phosphates,  or  hen  manure  in 
the  hill.  Let  all  guano,  if  at  all  lumpy,  like  the  Peru- 
vian, be  sifted,  and  let  all  the  hard'  lumps  be  reduced  by 
pounding,  until  the  largest  pieces  shall  not  be  larger 
than  half  a  pea,  before  it  is  brought  upon  the  ground. 
My  land  being  ready,  the  compost  worked  under  and 
the  rows  marked  out,  I  select  three  trusty  hands  who 
can  be  relied  upon  to  follow  faithfully  my  directions  in 
applying  so  dangerous  manure  as  guano  is  in  careless  or 
ignorant  hands  ;  one  takes  a  bucket  of  it,  and,  if  for 
large  cabbage,  drops  as  much  as  he  can  readily  close  in 
his  hand,  where  each  hill  is  to  be  ;  if  for  small  sorts, 
then  about  half  that  quantity,  spreading  it  over  a  circle 
about  a  foot  in  diameter;  the  second  man  follows  with 
a  pronged  hoe,  or  better  yet,  a  six-tined  fork,  with 
which  he  works  the  guano  well  into  the  soil,  first  turning 
it  three  or  four  inches  under  the  surface,  and  then  stir- 


CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC.       11 

ring  the  soil  very  thoroughly  with  the  hoe  or  fork.  Unless 
the  guano  (and  this  is  also  true  of  most  phosphates),  is 
faithfully  mixed  up  with  the  soil,  the  seed  will  not  veg- 
etate. Give  the  second  man  about  an  hour  the  start, 
and  then  let  the  third  man  follow  with  the  seed.  Of 
phosphates  I  use  about  half  as  much  again  as  of  guano 
to  each  hill,  and  of  hen  manure  a  heaping  handful,  after 
it  has  been  finely  broken  up,  and,  if  moist,  slightly 
mixed  with  dry  earth.  When  salt  is  used,  it  should  not 
be  depended  on  exclusively,  but  be  used  in  connection 
with  other  manures  at  the  rate  of  from  ten  to  fifteen 
bushels  to  the  acre,  applied  broadcast  over  the  ground, 
or  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  manure  before  that  is 
applied  ;  if  dissolved  in  the  manure,  better  yet.  Fish 
and  glue  waste  are  exceedingly  powerful  manures,  very 
rich  in  ammonia,  and  if  used  the  first  season  they  should 
be  in  compost.  It  is  best  to  handle  fish  waste,  such  as 
heads,  entrails,  backbones,  and  liver  waste,  precisely 
like  night  soil.  ';  Porgy  cheese,"  or  "  chum,"  the  ref- 
use after  pressing  out  the  oil  from  menhaden,  and  new 
sold  extensively  for  manure,  is  best  prepared  for  use  by 
composting  it  with  muck  or  loam,  layer  with  layer,  at 
the  rate  of  a  barrel  to  every  foot  and  a  half,  cord  meas- 
ure, of  soil.  As  soon  as  it  shows  some  heat  turn  it,  and 
repeat  the  process  two  or  three  times,  until  it  is  well 
decomposed,  when  apply.  Glue  waste  is  a  very  coarse, 
lumpy  manure,  and  requires  a  great  deal  of  severe  ma- 
nipulation if  it  is  to  be  applied  the  first  season.  A 
better  way  is  to  compost  it  with  soil,  layer  witli  layer, 
having  each  layer  about  a  foot  in  thickness,  and  so 
allow  it  to  remain  over  until  the  next  season  before 
using.  This  will  decompose  most  of  the  straw,  and 
break  down  the  hard,  tough   lumps.     In   applying  this 


12  CABBAGES,    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM,    ETC. 

to  the  crop,  most  of  it  had  better  be  used  broadcast,  as 
it  is  apt  at  best  to  be  rather  too  coarse  and  concentrated 
to  be  used  liberally  directly  in  the  hill.  Slaughter-house 
manure  should  be  treated  much  like  glue  manure. 

MAKING  THE  HILLS  AS'D  PLAXTIXG  THE    SEED. 

The  idea  is  quite  prevalent  that  cabbages  will  not  head 
up  well  except  the  plants  arc  started  in  beds  and  the  1 
transplanted  into  the  hills  where  they  are  to  mature. 
This  is  an  error,  so  far  as  it  applies  to  the  northern  states; 
— the  largest  and  most  experienced  cultivators  of  cab- 
bage in  New  England  usually  dropping  the  seed  directly 
where  the  plants  are  to  stand,  unless  they  are  first 
started  under  glass,  or  the  piece  of  land  to  be  planted 
cannot  be  prepared  in  season  to  enable  the  farmer  t) 
put  his  seed  directly  in  the  hill  and  yet  give  the  cabbage 
time  sufficient  to  mature.  Where  the  climate  is  unpro- 
pitious,  or  the  quantity  of  manure  applied  is  insufficient, 
it  is  possible  that  transplanting  may  promote  heading. 
The  advantages  of  planting  directly  in  the  hill  are  a 
saving  of  time,  avoiding  the  risks  incidental  to  trans- 
planting, and  having  all  the  piece  start  alike  ;  for  when 
transplanted  many  die  and  have  to  be  replaced,  while 
some  hesitate  much  longer  than  others  before  starting, 
thus  making  a  want  of  uniformity  in  the  maturing  of  the 
crop.  There  is  also  this  advantage,  there  being  several 
plants  in  each  hill,  the  cut-worm  has  to  depredate  pretty 
severely  before  he  really  injures  the  piece  ;  again,  should 
the  seed  not  vegetate  in  any  of  the  hills,  every  farmer 
will  appreciate  the  advantage  of  having  healthy  plants 
growing  so  near  at  hand  that  they  can  be  transferred  to 
the  vacant  spaces  witli  their  roots  so  undisturbed  that 
their  growth  is  hardly  checked.     In  addition  to  the  labor 


CABBAGES,    HOW   TO    GROW   THEM,    ETC.  13 

of  transplanting  saved  by  this  plan,  the  great  check  that 
plants  always  receive  when  so  treated  is  prevented,  and 
also  the  extra  risks  that  occur  should  a  season  of  drouth 
follow. 

Some  of  our  best  farmers  drill  their  seed  in  with  a 
sowing  machine,  such  as  is  used  for  onions,  carrots,  and 
Dther  vegetable  crops.  This  is  a  very  expeditious  way, 
and  lias  the  advantage  of  leaving  the  plants  in  rows 
instead  of  bunches,  as  in  the  hill  system,  and  thus 
enables  the  hoe  to  do  most  of  the  work  of  thinning. 
It  has  also  this  advantage,  each  plant  being  by  itself 
can  be  left  much  longer  before  thinning,  and  yet  not 
grow  long  in  the  stump,  thus  making  it  available  for 
transplanting,  or  for  sale  in  the  market,  for  a  longer 
period. 

The  usual  way  of  preparing  the  hills  is  to  strike  out 
furrows  with  a  small,  one-horse  plough,  as  far  apart  as 
the  rows  are  to  be.  As  it  is  very  important  that  the 
rows  should  be  as  straight  as  practicable,  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  run  back  once  in  each  furrow,  particularly  on 
sod  land  where  the  plough  will  be  apt  to  catch  in  the 
turf  and  jump  out  of  line.  A  manure  team  follows, 
containing  the  dressing  for  the  hills,  which  lias 
previously  been  pitched  over  and  beaten  up  until  all  the 
ingredients  are  fine  and  well  mixed.  This  team  is  so 
driven,  if  possible,  as  to  avoid  running  in  the  furrows. 
Two  or  three  hands  follow  with  forks  or  shovels,  pitching 
the  manure  into  the  furrows  at  the  distance  apart  that 
has  been  determined  on  for  the  hills.  The  manure  is 
leveled  with  hoes,  a  little  soil  is  drawn  over  it,  and  a 
slight  stamp  with  the  back  of  the  hoc  is  given  to  level 
this  soil  and  at  the  same  time  to  mark  the  hill.  The 
planter  follows  with  seed  in  a  tin  box,  or  any  small  ves- 


14  CABBAGES,    HOW    TO    GROW   THEM,    ETC. 

sel  having  a  broad  bottom,  and  taking  a  small  pinch  be- 
tween the  thumb  and  fore  finger  he  gives  a  slight  scratch 
with  the  remaining  fingers  of  the  same  hand,  and  drop- 
ping in  about  half  a  dozen  seed  covers  them  half  an  inch 
deep  with  a  sweep  of  the  hand,  and  packs  the  earth  by 
a  gentle  pat  with  the  open  palm  to  keep  the  moisture  in 
.the  ground  and  thus  promote  the  vegetation  of  the  seed. 
With  care  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  seed  will  plant  an 
acre,  when  dropped  directly  in  the  hills  ;  but  half  a 
pound  is  the  common  allowance,  as  there  is  usually  some 
waste  from  spilling,  while  most  laborers  plant  with  a 
free  hand. 

The  soil  over  the  hills  being  very  light  and  porous, 
careless  hands  are  apt  to  drop  the  seed  too  deep.  Care 
should  be  taken  not  to  drop  the  soed  all  in  one  spot,  but 
to  scatter  them  over  a  surface  of  two  or  three  inches 
square,  that  each  plant  may  have  room  to  develop  with- 
out crowding  its  neighbors. 

If  the  seed  is  to  be  drilled  in,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
scatter  the  manure  all  along  the  furrows,  then  cover 
with  a  plough,  roughly  leveling  with  a  rake. 

Should  the  compost  applied  to  the  hills  be  very  con- 
centrated, it  will  be  apt  to  produce  slump  foot ;  it  will 
therefore  be  safest  in  such  cases  to  hollow  out  the  middle 
with  the  corner  of  the  hoe,  or  draw  the  hoe  through  and 
fill  in  with  earth,  that  the  roots  of  the  young  plants  may 
not  come  in  direct  contact  with  the  compost  as  scon  as 
they  begin  to  push. 

When  guano  or  phosphates  are  used  in  the  hills  it  will 
be  well  to  mark  out  the  rows  with  a  plough,  and  then, 
where  each  hill  is  to  be,  fill  in  the  soil  level  to  the  sur- 
face with  a  hoc,  before  applying  them.  I  have  in  a  pre- 
vious   paragraph  given  full  instructions  how  to    apply 


CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC.        15 

these.  Hen  manure,  if  moist,  should  be  broken  up  very 
fine,  and  be  mixed  with  some  dry  earth  to  prevent  it 
from  again  lumping  together,  and  then  applied  in  suf- 
ficient quantity  to  make  an  equivalent  of  a  heaping 
handful  of  pure  hen  manure  to  each  hill.  Any  liquid 
manure  is  excellent  for  the  cabbage  crop  ;  but  it  should 
be  well  diluted,  or  it  will  be  likely  to  produce  stump  foot. 

Cabbage  seed  of  almost  all  varieties  are  nearly  round 
in  form,  but  are  not  so  spherical  as  turnip  seed.  I  note, 
however,  that  seed  of  the  Improved  American  Savoy  is 
nearly  oval.  In  color  they  are  light  brown  when  first 
gathered,  but  gradually  turn  dark  brown  if  not  gathered 
too  early.  An  ounce  contains  nearly  ten  thousand  seed, 
but  should  not  be  relied  upon  for  many  over  two  thou- 
sand good  plants,  and  these  are  available  for  about  as 
many  hills  only  when  raised  in  beds  and  transplanted  ; 
when  dropped  directly  in  the  hills  it  will  take  not  far 
from  eight  ounces  of  the  larger  sorts  to  plant  an  acre, 
and  of  the  smaller  cabbage  rather  more  than  this. 
Cabbage  seed  when  well  cured  and  kept  in  close  bags 
will  retain  their  vitality  four  or  five  years  ;  old  ;garden- 
ers  prefer  seed  of  all  the  cabbage  family  two  or  three 
years  old.  .  .  :  .    . 

When  the  plan  is  to  raise  the  young  plants. in  beds  to 
be  transplanted,  the  ground  selected  for  the  beds,  should 
be  of  rich  soil ;  this  should  be  very  thoroughly  dug.,  and 
the  surface  worked  and  raked  very  fine,  every  stone  and 
lump  of  earth  being  removed.  Now  sprinkle  the  seedT 
evenly  over  the  bed  and  gently  rake  in  just  under  the 
surface,  compacting  the  soil  by  pressure  with  a  board. 
As  soon  as  the  young  plants  appear,  sprinkle  them  with 
air-slaked  lime.  Transplant  when  three  or, four  inches 
high,  being  very  careful  not  to  let  the  plant  get  tall  and 
weak. 


I 


16       CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC. 

For  late  cabbage,  in  the  latitude  of  Boston,  to  have 
cabbages  ready  for  market  about  the  first  of  November, 
the  Marblehead  Mammoth  should  be  planted  the  20th 
of  May,  other  late  drumheads  from  June  1st  to  June 
12th,  provided  the  plants  are  not  to  be  transplanted  ; 
otherwise  a  week  earlier.  In  those  localities  wherfc  the 
growing  season  is  later,  the  seed  should  be  planted 
proportionally  later. 

CAKE  OF  THE  YOUNG  PLANTS. 

In  four  or  five  days,  if  the  weather  is  propitious,  the 
young  plants  will  begin  to  break  ground,  presenting  at 
the  surface  two  leaves,  which  together  make  nearly  a 
square,  like  the  first  leaves  of  turnips  or  radishes. 
As  soon  as  the  third  leaf  is  developed,  go  over  the 
piece,  and  boldly  thin  out  the  plants.  Wherever  they 
arc  very  thick,  pull  a  mass  of  them  with  the  fingers  and 
thumb,  being  careful  to  fill  up  the  hole  made  with  fine 
earth.  After  the  fourth  leaf  is  developed,  go  over  the 
piece  again  and  thin  still  more ;  you  need  specially  to 
guard  against  a  slender,  weak  growth,  which  will  hap- 
pen when  the  plants  are  too  crowded.  In  thinning, 
leave  the  short-stumped  plants,  and  leave  them  as  far 
apart  in  the  hill  as  possible,  that  they  may  not  shade 
each  other,  or  so  interfere  in  growing  as  to  make  long 
stumps.  If  there  is  any  market  for  young  plants,  thou- 
sands can  be  sold  from  an  acre  when  the  seed  are 
planted  in  the  hill  ;  but  in  doing  this  bear  in  mind  that 
your  principal  object  is  to  raise  cabbages,  and  to  succeed 
in  this  the  young  plants  must  on  no  account  be  allowed 
to  stand  so  long  together  in  the  hills  as  to  crowd  each 
other,  making  a  tall,  weak,  slender  growth, — getting 
"  long  legged,"  as  the  farmers  call  it. 


CABBAGES,    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM,    ETC.  IT 

If  tho  manure  in  any  of  the  hills  is  too  strong,  the 
fact  will  be  known  by  its  effects  on  the  plants,  which 
will  be  checked  in  their  growth,  and  be  of  a  darker 
green  color  than  the  healthy  plants.  Gently  pull  away 
the  earth  from  the  roots  of  such  with  the  fingers,  and 
draw  around  fresh  earth  ;  or,  what  is  as  well  or  better, 
transplant  a  healthy  plant  just  on  the  edge  of  the  hill. 
When  the  plants  arc  finger  high  they  are  of  a  good  size 
to  transplant  into  such  hills  as  have  missed,  or  to  market. 
When  transplanting,  select  a  rainy  day,  if  possible,  and 
do  not  begin  until  sufficient  rain  has  fallen  to  moisten 
the  earth  around  the  roots,  which  will  make  it  more 
likely  to  adhere  to  them  when  taken  up.  Take  up  tho 
young  plants  by  running  the  finger  or  a  trowel  under 
them  ;  put  these  into  a  flat  basket  or  box,  and  in  trans- 
planting set  them  to  the  same  depth  they  originally 
grew,  pressing  the  earth  a  little  about  the  roots. 

If  it  is  necessary  to  do  the  transplanting  in  a  dry 
spell,  as  usually  happens,  select  the  latter  part  of  the 
afternoon,  if  practicable,  and,  making  holes  with  a 
dibble  or  any  pointed  stick  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diam- 
eter, fill  these  holes,  a  score  or  more  at  a  time,  with 
water ;  and  as  soon  as  the  water  is  about  soaked  away, 
beginning  witli  the  hole  first  filled,  set  out  your  plants. 
The  evaporation  of  the  moisture  below  the  roots  will 
keep  them  moist  until  they  get  a  hold.  Cabbage  plants 
have  great  tenacity  of  life,  and  will  rally  and  grow 
when  they  appear  to  be  dead ;  the  leaves  may  all  die, 
and  dry  up  like  hay,  but  if  the  stump  stands  erect  and 
the  unfolded  leaf  at  the  top  of  tho  stump  is  alive,  the 
plant  will  usually  survive.  Some  advocate  wilting  tho 
plants  before  transplanting ;  others  challenge  their  vigor 
by  making  it  a  rule  to  do  all  transplanting  under  the 
heat  of  mid-day.  I  think  there  is  not  much  of  reason 
in  cither  course. 


18  CABBAGES,    HOW   TO    GROW    THEM,    ETC. 

PROTECTING  THE  PLANTS  FROM  THEIR  ENEMIES, 

As  soon  as  they  have  broken  through  the  soil,  an  enemy 
awaits  them  in  the  small  black  insect  commonly  known 
as  the  cabbage  or  turnip  fly,  beetle,  or  flea.  This  insect, 
though  so  small  as  to  appear  to  the  eye  as  a  black  dot 
is  very  voracious  and  surprisingly  active.  He  apparently 
feeds  on  the  juice  of  the  young  plant,  perforating  it  with 
small  holes  the  size  of  a  pin  point.  He  is  so  active  when 
disturbed  that  his  motions  cannot  be  followed  by  the 
eye,  and  his  sense  of  danger  is  so  keen  that  only  by 
cautiously  approaching  the  plant  can  he  be  seen  at  all. 
The  delay  of  a  single  day  in  protecting  the  young  plants 
from  his  ravages  will  sometimes  be  the  destruction  of 
nearly  the  entire  piece.  Wood  ashes  and  air-slaked 
lime,  sprinkled  upon  the  plants  while  the  leaves  are 
moist  from  either  rain  or  dew,  afford  almost  complete 
protection.  The  lime  or  ashes  should  be  applied  as 
soon  as  the  plant  can  be  seen,  for  then,  when  they  are 
in  their  tenderest  condition,  the  fly  is  most  destructive. 
I  am  not  certain  that  the  alkaline  nature  of  these  affords 
the  protection,  or  whether  a  mere  covering  by  common 
dust  might  not  answer  equally  well.  Should  the  covering 
be  washed  off  by  rain,  apply  it  anew  immediately  after 
the  rain  has  ceased,  and  so  continue  to  keep  the  young- 
plants  covered  until  the  third  or  fourth  leaves  appear, 
when  they  will  have  become  too  tough  to  serve  as  food 
for  this  insect  enemy. 

A  new  enemy  much  dreaded  by  all  cabbage  raisers  will 
begin  to  make  his  appearance  at  about  the  time  the  flea 
disappears,  known  as  the  cut-worm.  This  worm  is  of 
a  dusky  brown  color,  with  a  dark  colored  head,  and 
varies  in  size  up  to  about  two  inches  in  length.  He 
burrows  in  the  ground  just  below  the  surface,  is   slow  of 


19 

motion,  and  does  his  mischievous  work  at  night, 
gnawing  off  the  young  plants  close  at  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  This  enemy  is  hard  to  battle  with..  If  the 
patch  be  small,  these  worms  can  be  scratched  out  of 
their  hiding  places  by  pulling  the  earth  carefully  away 
the  following  morning  for  a  few  inches  around  the 
stump  of  the  plant  destroyed,  when  the  rascals  will 
usually  be  found  half  coiled  together.  Dropping  a  little 
wood  ashes  around  the  plants  close  to  the  stumps  is  one 
of  the  best  of  remedies  ;  its  alkaline  properties  burning 
his  nose  I  presume.  A  tunnel  of  paper  put  around  the 
stump  but  not  touching  it,  and  sunk  just  below  the  sur- 
face, is  recommended  as  efficacious  ;  and  from  the  hab- 
its of  the  worm  I  should  think  it  would  prove  so.  Late 
planted  cabbage  will  suffer  little  or  none  from  this  pest, 
as  he  disappears  about  the  middle  of  June.  Some  sea- 
sons they  are  remarkably  numerous  ;  making  it  neces- 
sary to  replant  portions  of  the  cabbage  patcli  several- 
times  over.  I  have  heard  of  as  many  as  twenty  being 
dug  at  different  times  the  same  season  out  of  one  cab- 
bage hill.  The  farmer  who  tilled  that  patch  earned  his 
dollars.  When  the  cabbage  has  a  stump  the  size  of  a 
pipe  stem  it  is  beyond  the  destructive  ravages  of  the  cut 
worm,  and  should  it  escape  stump  foot  has  usually  quite 
a  period  of  growth  free  from  the  attacks  of  enemies. 
Should  the  season  prove  unpropitious  and  the  plant  be 
checked  in  its  growth,  it  will  be  apt  to  become  "  lousy," 
as  the  farmers  term  it,  referring  to  its  condition  when 
attacked  by  a  small  green  insect  known  as  aphidse, 
which  preys  upon  it  in  myriads  ;  when  this  is  the  case 
the  leaves  lose  their  bright  green,  turn  of  a  bluish  cast, 
the  leaf  stocks  lose  somewhat  of  their  supporting  pow- 
ers, the  leaves  curl  up  into  irregular  shapes,  and  the 


20 

lower  layer  turns  black  and  drops  off,  while  the  ground 
under  the  plant  appears  covered  with  the  casts  or 
bodies  of  the  insects  as  with  a  white  powder.  When  in 
this  condition  the  plants  arc  in  a  very  bad  way. 

Considering  the  circumstances  under  which  this  in- 
sect appears,  usually  in  a  very  dry  season,  I  hold  that  it 
is  rather  the  product  than  the  cause  of  disease,  as  with 
the  bark  louse  on  our  apple  trees  ;  as  a  remedy  I  advo- 
cate sprinkling  the  plants  with  air-s'aked  lime,  watering 
if  possible,  and  a  frequent  and  thorough  stirring  of  the 
soil  with  the  cultivator  and  hoc.  The  better  the  oppor- 
tunities the  cabbage  have  to  develop  themselves  through 
high  manuring,  sufficient  moisture,  good  drainage,  and 
thorough  cultivation,  the  less  liable  they  arc  to  be 
"  lousy."  As  the  season  advances  there  will  sometimes 
he  found  patches  eaten  out  of  the  leaves,  leaving  nothing 
hut  the  skeleton  of  leaf  veins  ;  an  examination  will 
show  a  band  of  caterpillars  of  a  light  green  color  at 
work,  who  feed  in  a  compact  mass,  oftentimes  a  square, 
with  as  much  regularity  as  though  under  the  best  of 
military  discipline.  The  readiest  way  to  dispose  of 
them  is  to  break  off  the  leaf  and  crush  them  under  foot. 
The  common  large  red  caterpillar  occasionally  preys  on 
the  plants,  eating  large  holes  in  the  leaves  especially 
about  the  head.  When  the  cabbage  plot  is  bordered  by 
grass  land,  in  seasons  when  grasshoppers  arc  plenty, 
they  will  frequently  destroy  the  outer  rows,  puncturing 
the  leaves  with  small  holes  and  feeding  on  them  until 
little  besides  their  skeletons  remain.  In  isolated  loca- 
tions rabbits  and  other  vegetable  feeders  sometimes 
commit  depredations.  The  snare  and  the  shot  gun  arc 
the  remedy  for  these. 

Other   insects  that  prey  upon  the  cabbage  tribe,    in 


CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC.       21 

their  caterpillar  state,  are  the  cabbage  moth,  white-line, 
brown-eyed  moth,  large  white  garden  butterfly,  white 
and  green  veined  butterfly.  All  of  these  produce  cater- 
pillars which  can  be  destroyed  either  by  application  of 
air-slaked  lime,  or  by  removing  the  leaves  infested  and 
crushing  the  intruders  under  foot.  The  cabbage-fly, 
father-long  legs,  the  mellipedes,  the  blue  cabbage  fly, 
brassy  cabbage  ilea,  and  two  or  three  other  insect  ene- 
mies are  mentioned  by  Mcintosh  as  infesting  the  cab- 
bage fields  of  England  ;  also  three  species  of  fungi 
known  as  white  rust,  mildew,  and  cyUndrosjiorium  con- 
centricum  ;  these  last  are  destroyed  by  the  sprinkling  of 
air-slaked  lime  on  the  leaves.  In  this  country,  along 
the  sea  coast  of  the  northern  section,  in  open  ground 
cultivation  there  is  comparatively  but  little  injury  done 
by  these  marauders,  which  are  the  cause  of  so  much 
annoyance  and  loss  to  our  English  cousins. 

THE  GREEN  WORM. 
A  new  and  troublesome  enemy  to  the  cabbage  tribe 
has  made  its  appearance  within  a  few  years,  and  spread 
rapidly  over  a  large  section  of  country,  in  a  green 
worm.  This  pest  infests  the  cabbage  tribe  at  all  stages 
of  its  growth  ;  it  is  believed  to  have  been  recently  in- 
troduced into  this  country  from  Europe,  by  the  way 
of  Canada,  where  it  was  brought  in  a  lot  of  cabbage. 
It  is  probably  the  caterpillar  of  a  white  butterfly  with 
black  spots  on  its  wings.  In  Europe,  this  butterfly  is 
preyed  on  by  two  or  more  parasites,  which  keep  it  some- 
what in  check;  but  its  remarkably  rapid  increase  in  this 
country,  causing  a  wail  of  lamentation  to  rise  in  a  single 
season  from  the  cabbage  growers  over  areas  of  tens  of 
thousands  of  square  miles,  leads  me  to  fear  that  it  has 
reached  this  country  without  its  attendant  parasites. 


22        CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC. 

Besides  this  green  worm,  there  are  found  in  Europe 
four  varieties  of  caterpillar  variously  marked,  all  of 
which  make  great  havoc  among  the  cabbage  tribe. 

The  remedies  given  as  successful,  by  writers  and  cor- 
respondents, are  sprinkling  with  clarified  lime-water, 
dusting  with  air-slaked  lime,  hellebore,  or  Scotch  snuff. 
An  admixture  of  carbonate  and  carbolate  of  lime,  dusted 
on,  has  proved  a  protective  in  this  country.  Chickens 
allowed  to  run  freely  among  the  growing  plants,  the  hen 
being  confined  in  a  movable  coop,  if  once  attracted  to 
them  will  fatten  on  them.  This  remedy  might  answer 
very  well  for  small  plots.  Water  heated  to  the  tempera- 
ture of  160°  and  applied  at  once,  being  sprinkled  over  the 
plants  by  a  common  brush  broom,  has  proved  a  success ; 
but  at  180°  it  has  injured  the  leaves.  Large  areas  in 
cabbage,  in  proportion  to  their  size  are,  as  a  rule,  far 
less  injured  by  insect  enemies  than  small  patches. 

CLUB  OK  STSJMP  FOOT. 
.-  The  great  dread  of  every  cabbage  grower  is  a  disease 
of  the  branching  roots,  producing  a  bunchy,  .gland-like 
enlargement,  known  in  different  localities  under  the 
name  of  club  foot,  stump  foot,  underground  head,  finger 
and  thumb.  The  result  is  a  check  in  the  ascent  of  the 
sap,  which  causes  a  defective  vitality.  There  arc  two 
theories  as  to  the  origin  of  club  foot ;  one  that  it  is  a 
disease  caused  by  poor  soil,  bad  cultivation,  and  unsuita- 
ble manures  ;  the  other  that  the  injury  is  done  by  an 
insect  enemy,  Curculio  contractus.  It  is  held  by  some 
that  the  maggots  at  the  root  are  the  progeny  of  the  cab- 
bage ilea ;  this  I  doubt.  This  insect,  "  piercing  the 
skin  of  the  root,  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  holes,  lives 
during  a  time  on  the  sap  of  the  plant,  and  then  escapes 
and  buries  itself  for  a  time  i:i  the  soil." 


23 

If  the  wart  or  gland-like  excrescence  is  seen  while 
transplanting,  throw  all  such  plants  away  unless  your 
supply  is  short ;  in  such  case  carefully  trim  off  all  the 
diseased  portions  with  a  sharp  knife.  If  the  disease  is 
in  the  growing  crop,  it  will  be  made  evident  by  the 
drooping  of  the  leaves  under  the  mid-day  sun,  leaves  of 
diseased  plants  drooping  more  than  those  of  healthy 
ones,  while  they  will  usually  have  a  bluer  cast.  Should 
this  disease  show  itself,  set  the  cultivator  going  immedi- 
ately, and  follow  with  the  hoe,  drawing  up  fresh  earth 
around  the  plants,  which  will  encourage  them  to  form 
new  fibrous  roots  ;  should  they  do  this  freely  the  plants 
will  be  saved,  as  the  attacks  of  the  insect  are  usually 
confined  to  the  coarse  branching  roots.  Should  the  dis- 
ease prevail  as  late  as  when  the  plants  have  reached 
half  their  growth,  the  chances  are  decidedly  against 
raising  a  paying  crop. 

When  the  land  planted  is  too  wet,  or  the  manure  in 
the  hill  is  too  strong,  this  dreaded  disease  is  liable  to  be 
found  on  any  soil ;  but  it  is  most  likely  to  manifest  itself 
on  soils  that  have  been  previously  cropped  with  cabbage, 
turnip,  or  some  other  member  of  the  Brassica  family. 

Farmers  find  that  as  a  rule  it  is  not  safe  to  follow 
cabbage,  ruta  baga,  or  any  of  the  Brassica  family,  ivith 
cabbage,  unless  three  or  four  years  have  intervened  be- 
tween the  crops ;  and  I  have  known  an  instance  in 
growing  the  Marblehead  Mammoth,  where,  though  five 
years  had  intervened,  that  portion  of  the  piece  occupied 
by  the  previous  crop  could  be  distinctly  marked  off  by 
the  presence  of  club  foot. 

Singular  as  it  may  appear,  old  gardens  are  an  excep- 
tion to  this  rule.  While  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  raise 
in  old  gardens  a  fair  turnip  free  from  club-foot,  cab- 
bages may  be  raised  year  after  year  on  the  same  soil 


24  CABBAGES,    HOW   TO    GROW   THEM,    ETC. 

with  impunity,  or  at  least  with  but  trifling  injury  from 
that  disease.  This  seems  to  prove,  contrary  to  English 
authority,  that  club-foot  in  the  turnip  tribe  is  the  effect 
of  a  dLTcrcnt  cause  from  the  same  disease  in  the  cab- 
bage family. 

There  is  another  position  taken  by  Stephens  in  his 
"  Book  of  the  Farm,"  which  facts  seem  to  disprove, 
lie  puts  forth  the  theory  that  "  all  such  diseases  arise 
from  poverty  of  the  soil,  cither  from  want  of  manure 
when  the  soil  is  naturally  poor,  or  rendered  effete  by 
over-cropping."  There  is  a  farm  on  a  neck  of  land  be- 
longing to  this  town  which  lias  peculiar  advantages  for 
collecting  sea  kelp  and  sea  moss,  and  these  manures  arc 
there  used  most  liberally,  particularly  for  the  cultivation 
of  cabbarc,  from  eight  to  twelve  cords  of  rotton  kelp, 
which  is  stronger  than  barn  manure  and  more  suitable 
food  for  cabbage,  being  used  to  tho  acre.  A  few  years 
ago,  on  a  change  of  tenants,  the  new  incumbent  heavily 
manured  a  piece  for  cabbage  and  planted  it  -;  but  as  the 
season  advanced  stump  foot  developed  in  every  cabbage 
on  one  side  of  the  piece,  while  all  the  remainder  were 
healthy.  Upon  inquiry  he  learned  that  by  mistake  he 
had  overlapped  the  cabbage  plot  of  last  season  just  so 
far  as  the  stump  foot  extended.  In  this  instance  it 
could  not  have  been  that  the  cabbage  suffered  for  want 
of  food,  for  not  only  was  the  piece  heavily  manured  that 
year  and  the  year  previous,  but  it  had  been  liberally 
manured  through  a  scries  of  years,  and  to  a  large  ex- 
tent with  the  manure  which  of  all  others  the  cabbage 
tribe  delight  in,  rotten  kelp  and  sea  mosses.  I  have 
known  other  instances  where  soil  naturally  quite  strong 
and  kept  heavily  manured  for  a  scries  of  years  has 
shown  stump  foot  when  cabbage  were  planted  with  inter- 
vals of  two  and  three  years  between.     My  theory  is  that 


25 

the  mere  presence  of  the  cabbage  causes  stump  foot  on 
succeeding  crops  grown  on  the  same  soil.  This  is 
proved  by  the  fact  that  where  a  piece  of  land  in  grass, 
close  adjoining  a  piece  of  growing  cabbage,  had  been 
used  for  stripping  them  for  marked,  when  this  was  broken 
-up  the  next  season  and  planted  to  cabbage,  stump  foct 
appeared  only  on  that  portion  where  the  waste  leaves 
fell  the  year  previous.  I  have  another  instance  to  the 
same  point,  told  me  by  an  observing  farmer,  that  on  a 
piece  of  sod  land  on  which  he  run  his  cultivator  the  year 
previous  when  turning  his  horse  every  time  he  had  cul- 
tivated a  row,  he  had  stump  footed  cabbage  the  next 
season  just  as  far  as  that  cultivator  went,  dragging,  of 
course,  a  few  leaves  and  a  little  earth  from  the  cabbage 
piece  with  it.  Still,  though  the  mere  presence  cf  cab- 
bage causes  stump  foot,  it  is  a  fact  that  under  certain 
conditions  cabbage  can  be  grown  on  the  same  piece  of 
land  year  after  year  successfully,  with  but  very  little 
trouble  from  stump  foot.  In  this  town  (Marblchcad) 
though,  as  I  have  stated,  we  cannot  on  our  farms  follow 
cabbage  with  cabbage,  even  with  the  highest  of  manur- 
ing and  cultivation,  yet  in  the  gardens  of  the  town,  on 
the  same  kind  of  soil,  (and  our  soil  is  green  stone  and 
syenite,  not  naturally  containing  lime,)  there  arc  in- 
stances where  cabbage  have  been  successfully  followed 
by  cabbage  on  the  same  spot  for  a  quarter  of  a  century 
and  more.  In  the  garden  of  an  aged  citizen  of  this 
town,  cabbages  have  been  raised  on  the  same  spotofland 
for  over  half  a  century. 

The  cause  of  stump  foot  cannot  therefore  be  found  in 
the  poverty  of  the  soil,  cither  from  want  of  manure  or 
its  having  been  rendered  effete  from  over-cropping.  It 
is  evident  that  by  long  cultivation  soils  gradually  have 
diffused  through  them  something  that  proves  inimical 


26       CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC. 

to  the  disease  that  produces  stump  foot.  I  will  suggest 
as  probable  that  the  protection  is  afforded  by  the  pres- 
ence of  some  alkali  that  old  gardens  are  constantly  ac- 
quiring through  house  waste  which  is  always  finding  its 
way  there,  particularly  the  slops  from  the  sink,  which 
abound  in  potash.  This  is  rendered  further  probable 
from  the  fact  given  by  Mr.  Peter  Henderson,  that,  on 
soils  in  this  vicinity,  naturally  abounding  in  lime,  cab- 
bage can  be  raised  year  following  year  with  almost  im- 
munity from  stump  foot.  He  ascribes  this  to  the  effects 
of  lime  in  the  soil  derived  from  marine  shells,  and  r©r 
commends  that  lime  from  bones  be  used  to  secure  the 
same  protection  ;  but  the  lime  that  enters  into  the  com- 
position of  marine  shells  is  for  the  most  part  carbonate 
of  lime,  whereas  the  greater  portion  of  that  which  enters 
into  the  composition  of  bones  is  phosphate  of  lime. 
Common  air-slaked  lime  is  almost  pure  carbonate  of 
lime,  and  hence  comes  nearer  to  the  composition  of 
marine  shells  than  lime  from  bones,  and,  being  much 
cheaper,  would  appear  to  be  preferable. 

An  able  farmer  told  me  that  by  using  wood  ashes  lib- 
erally he  could  follow  with  cabbage  the  next  season  on 
the  same  piece.  An  experiment  of  my  own  in  this  di- 
rection did  not  prove  successful,  where  ashes  at  the  rate 
of  two  hundred  bushels  to  the  acre  were  used  ;  and  I 
have  an  impression  that  I  have  read  of  a  like  want  of 
success  after  quite  liberal  applications  of  lime.  Still, 
it  remains  evident,  I  think,  that  nature  prevents  stump 
foot  by  the  diffusing  of  alkalies  through  the  soil,  and 
I  mistrust  that  the  reason  why  we  sometimes  fail  with 
the  same  remedies  is  that  we  have  them  mixed,  rather 
than  intimately  combined,  with  the  particles  of  soil. 

As  I  have  stated  under  another  head,  an  attack  of 
club  foot  is  almost  sure  to  follow  the   use   of  pure  hog 


CABBAGES,    HOW   TO    GROW    THEM,    ETC.  27 

manure,  whether  it  be  used  broadcast  or  in  the  hill. 
About  ten  years  ago  I  ventured  to  use  hog  manure 
nearly  pure,  spread  broadcast  and  ploughed  in.  Stump 
foot  soon  showed  itself.  I  cultivated  and  hoed  the 
cabbage  thoroughly;  then,  as  they  still  appeared  sickly, 
I  had  the  entire  piece  thoroughly  dug  over  with  a 
six-tined  fork,  pushing  it  as  deep  or  deeper  into  the 
soil  than  the  plough  had  gone,  to  bring  up  the  manure 
to  the  surface ;  but  all  was  of  no  use ;  I  lost  the  entire 
crop.  Yet,  on  another  occasion,  stable  manure  on 
which  hogs  had  been  kept,  at  the  rate  of  two  hogs  to 
each  animal,  gave  me  one  of  the  finest  lots  of  cabbage 
I  ever  raised. 

CARE  OF  THE  GROWING  CROP. 

As  soon  as  the  young  plants  are  large  enough  to  be 
seen  with  the  naked  eye,  in  with  the  cultivator  and  go 
and  return  once  in  each  row,  being  careful  not  to 
have  any  lumps  of  earth  cover  the  plants.  Follow  the 
cultivator  immediately  with  the  hoe,  loosening  the  soil 
about  the  hills.  The  old  rule  with  farmers  is  to  culti- 
vate and  hoe  cabbage  three  times  during  their  growth, 
and  it  is  a  rule  that  works  very  well  where  the  crop  is 
in  good  growing  condition;  but  if  the  manure  is  deficient, 
the  soil  bakes,  or  the  plants  show  signs  of  disease,  then 
cultivate  and  hoe  once  or  twice  extra.  "  Hoe  cabbage 
when  wet,"  is  another  farmer's  axiom..  In  a  small 
garden  patch  the  soil  may  be  stirred  among  the  plants 
as  often  as  may  be  convenient,  it  can  do  no  harm ;  cab- 
bages relish  tending ;  though  it  is  not  necessary  to  do 
this  every  day,  as  one  enthusiastic  cultivator  evidently 
thought,  who  declared  that  by  hoeing  his  cabbages  every 
morning  he  had  succeeded  in  raising  capital  heads. 


Zb  CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC. 

If  a  season  of  drouth  occurs  when  the  cabbages  have 
begun  to  head,  the  heads  will  harden  prematurely  ;  and 
then  should  a  heavy  rain  fall,  they  will  start  to  make  a 
new  growth,  and  the  consequence  will  be  many  of  them 
will  split.  Split  or  bursted  cabbage  arc  a  source  of 
great  loss  to  the  farmer,  and  this  should  be  carefully 
guarded  against  by .  going  frequently  over  the  piece 
when  the  heads  are  setting,  and  starting  every  cabbage 
that  appears  to  be  about  mature.  A  stout  pronged  potato 
hoc  applied  just  under  the  leaves,  and  a  pull  given  suffi- 
cient to  start  the  roots  on  one  side,  will  accomplish  what 
is  needed.  If  cabbage  that  have  once  been  started  seem 
still  inclined  to  burst,  start  the  roots  on  the  other  side. 
Instead  of  a  hoc  they  may  be  pushed  over  with  the  foot, 
or  with  the  hand.  Frequently,  heads  that  arc  thus  start- 
ed will  grow  to  double  the  size  they  had  attained  when 
about  to  burst. 

MARKETING  THE  CROP. 
When  preparing  for  market  cabbages  that  have  been 
kept  over  Winter,  particularly  if  they  are  marketed  late 
in  the  season,  the  edges  of  the  leaves  of  some  of  the 
heads  will  be  found  to  be  more  or  less  decayed  ;  do  not 
strip  such  leaves  off,  but  with  a  sharp  knife  cut  clean 
off  the  decayed  edges.  The  earlier  the  variety  the 
sooner  it  needs  to  be  marketed,  for  as  a  rule  cabbages 
push  their  shoots  in  the  Spring  in  the  order  of  their 
earliness.  If  they  have  not  been  sufficiently  protected 
from  the  cold,  the  stumps  will  often  rot  off  close  to  the 
head  and  sometimes  the  rot  will  include  the  part  of  the 
stump  that  enters  the  head.  If  the  watery  looking  por- 
tion can  be  cut  clean  out,  the  head  is  salable ;  otherwise 
it  will  be  apt  to  have  an  unpleasant  flavor  when  cooked. 


29 

As  a  rule,  cabbages  for  marketing  should  bo  trimmed 
into  as  compact  a  form  as  possible  ;  the  heads  should  bo 
cut  off  close  to  the  stump,  leaving  two  or  three  spare 
leaves  to  protect  them.  They  may  be  brought  out  of 
the  piece  in  bushel  baskets,  and  be  piled  on  the  wagon 
as  high  as  a  hay  stack,  being  kept  in  place  by  a  stout 
canvas  sheet  tied  closely  down.  In  the  markets  of  Bos- 
ton, in  the  fall  of  the  year  they  are  usually  sold  at  a 
price  agreed  upon  by  the  hundred  head  ;  this  will  vary 
not  only  wiih  the  size  and  quality  of  the  cabbage,  but 
with  the  season,  the  crop,  and  the  quality  in  market  on 
that  particular  day.  Within  a  few  years  I  have  known 
the  range  of  price  for  the  Stone  Mason  or  Fottlcr  cab- 
bage equal  in  size  and  quality,  to  be  from  $3  to  $17  per 
hundred  ;  for  the  Marblchead  Mammoth  from  $3  to  $25 
per  hundred.  Cabbages  brought  to  market  in  the 
Spring  arc  usually  sold  by  weight  or  by  the  barrel,  at 
from  $1  to  $-1  per  hundred  pounds. 

The  earliest  cabbages  carried  to  market  sometimes 
bring  extraordinary  prices  ;  and  this  has  created  a  keen 
competition  among  market  gardeners,  each  striving  to 
produce  the  earliest,  a  difference  of  a  week  in  market- 
ing oftentimes  making  a  difference  of  one-half  in  the 
profits  of  the  crop.  Capt.  Wyman,  who  controlled  the 
Early  Wyman  cabbage  for  several  years,  sold  some 
seasons  thirty  thousand  heads,  if  my  memory  serves 
me,  at  pretty  much  his  own  price.  As  a  rule,  it  is  the 
very  early  and  the  very  late  cabbages  that  sell  most 
profitably.  Should  the  market  for  very  late  cabbages 
prove  a  poor  one,  the  farmer  is  not  compelled  to  sell 
them,  no  matter  at  what  sacrifice,  as  would  be  the  case 
a  month  earlier  ;  he  can  pit  them,  and  so  keep  them 
over  to  the  early  Spring  market  which  is  almost  always 
a  profitable  one.     In  marketing  in  Spring  it  should  be 


30       CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC. 


the  aim  to  make  sale  before  the  crops  of  Spring  greens 
become  plenty,  as  these  replace  the  cabbage  on  many 
tables.  By  starting  cabbage  in  hot  beds  a  crop  of  celery 
or  squashes  may  follow  them  the  same  season. 

KEEPING  CABBAGES  THROUGH  THE  WINTER. 

In  the  comparatively  mild  climate  of  England,  where 
there  are  but  few  days  in  the  Winter  months  that  the 
ground  remains  frozen  to  any  depth,  the  hardy  cabbage 
grows  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  turnips  left  during 
"Winter  standing  in  the  ground  are  fed  to  sheep  by  yard- 
ing them  over  the  different  portions  of  the  field.  With 
the  same  impunity,  in  the  southern  portion  of  our  own* 
country  the  cabbages  are  left  unprotected  during  the 
Winter  months  ;  and,  in  the  warmer  portions  of  the 
South  they  are  principally  a  Winter  crop.  As  we  ad- 
vance farther  north,  we  find  that  the  degree  of  protec- 
tion needed  is  afforded  by  running  the  plough  along 
each  side  of  the  rows,  turning  the  earth  against  them, 
and  dropping  a  little  litter  on  top  of  the  heads.  As  we 
advance  still  farther  northward,  we  find  sufficient  pro- 
tection given  by  but  little  more  than  a  rough  roof  of 
boards  thrown  over  the  heads,  after  removing  the  cab- 
bages to  a  sheltered  spot  and  setting  them  in  the  ground 
as  near  together  as  they  will  stand  without  being  in 
contact,  with  the  tops  of  the  heads  just  level  with  the 
surface. 

In  the  latitude  of  New  England,  cabbages  are  not 
secure  from  injury  from  frost  with  less  than  a  foot  of 
earth  thrown  over  the  heads.  In  mild  Winters  a  cover- 
ing of  half  that  deptli  will  be  sufficient ;  but  as  we  have 
no  prophets  to  foretell  our  mild  Winters,  a  foot  of  earth 
is  safer  than  six  inches.     Where  eel  grass  can  be  pro- 


CABBAGES,    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM,    ETG.  31 

cured  along  the  sea  coast,  or  there  is  straw  or  coarse  hay 
to  spare,  the  better  plan  is  to  cover  with  about  six  inches 
of  earth,  and  when  this  is  frozen  sufficiently  hard  to 
bear  a  man's  weight,  (which  is  usually  about  Thanks- 
giving time)  to  scatter  over  it  the  eel  grass,  straw  or 
coarse  hay,  to  the  depth  of  another  six  inches.  In  keep- 
ing cabbages  through  the  Winter,  three  general  facts 
should  be  borne  in  mind,  viz.  :  that  repeated  freezing 
and  thawing  will  cause  them  to  rot  ;  that  excessive 
moisture  or  warmth  will  also  cause  rot ;  while  a  dry  air, 
such  as  is  found  in  most  cellars,  will  abstract  moisture 
from  the  leaves,  injure  the  flavor  of  the  cabbage,  and 
cause  some  of  the  heads  to  wilt  and  the  harder  heads  to 
waste.  In  the  Middle  States  we  have  mostly  to  fear  the 
wet  of  Winter,  and  the  plan  for  keeping  for  that  section 
should  therefore  have  particularly  in  view  protection 
from  moisture,  while  in  the  northern  States  we  have  to 
fear  the  cold  of  Winter,  and  consequently  our  plan 
must  there  have  specially  in  view  protection  from  cold. 
When  storing  for  Winter,  select  a  dry  day,  if  possible 
sufficiently  long  after  rainy  weather  to  have  the  leaves 
free  of  water, — otherwise  they  will  spout  it  on  to  you, 
and  make  you  the  wettest  and  muddiest  scarecrow  ever 
seen  eff  a  farm, — then  strip  all  the  outer  leaves  from 
the  head  but  the  two  last  rows,  which  arc  needed  to 
protect  it.  This  may  be  readily  done  by  drawing  in 
these  two  rows  towards  the  head  with  the  left  hand, 
while  a  blow  is  struck  against  the  remaining  leaves 
with  the  fist  of  the  right  hand.  Next  pull  up  the 
cabbage,  which,  if  they  arc  of  the  largest  varieties, 
maybe  expeditiously  clone  by  a  potato  hoc.  If  they 
arc  not  intended  for  seed  purposes,  stand  the  heads 
down  and  stumps  up  until  the   earth   on  the   roots   is 


32       CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC. 

somewhat  dry,  when  it  can  be  mostly  removed  by  sharp 
blows  against  the  stump  given  with  a  stout  stick.  In 
loading  do  not  bruise  the  heads.  Select  the  place  for 
keeping  them  in  a  dry,  level  location,  and  if  in  the 
North  a  southern  exposure,  where  no  water  can  stand 
and  there  can  be  no  wash.  To  make  the  pit,  run  the 
plough  along  from  two  to  four  furrows,  and  throw  out 
the  soil  with  the  shovel  to  the  requisite  depth,  which 
may  be  from  six  to  ten  inches  :  now  if  the  design  is  to 
roof  over  the  pit,  the  cabbages  may  be  put  in  as  thickly 
as  they  will  stand  ;  if  the  heads  are  solid  they  may  be 
either  head  up  or  stump  up,  and  two  layers  deep  ;  but 
if  the  heads  arc  soft,  then  heads  up  and  one  deep,  and 
not  crowded  very  close  that  they  may  have  room  to 
make  heads  during  the  Winter.  Having  excavated  an 
area  twelve  by  six  feet,  set  a  couple  of  posts  in  the 
ground  midway  at  each  end,  projecting  about  five  feet 
above  the  surface ;  connect  the  two  by  a  joist  secured 
firmly  to  the  top  of  each,  and  against  this,  extending  to 
the  ground  just  outside  the  pit,  lay  slabs,  boards  or  poles, 
and  cover  the  roof  that  will  be  thus  formed  with  six 
inches  of  straw  or  old  hay,  and  if  in  the  North  throw 
six  or  eight  inches  of  earth  over  this.  Leave  one  end 
open  for  entrance  and  to  air  the  pit,  closing  the  other 
end  with  straw  or  hay.  In  the  North  close  both  ends, 
opening  one  of  them  occasionally  in  mild  weather. 

When  cabbages  are  pitted  on  a  large  scale  this  system 
of  roofing  is  too  costly  and  too  cumbersome.  A  few 
thousand  may  be  kept  in  a  cool  root  cellar,  by  putting 
one  layer  heads  down,  and  standing  another  layer 
heads  up  between  these.  The  common  practice  in  the 
North,  when  many  thousands  are  to  be  stored  for  Winter 
and  Spring  sales,  is  to  select  a  southern  exposure  hav- 


CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC.        33 

ing  the  protection  of  a  fence  or  wall  if  practicable,  and 
turning  furrows  with  the  plough  throw  out  the  earth 
with  shovels  to  the  depth  of  about  six  inches  ;  the  cab- 
bages, stripped  as  before  described,  are  then  stored 
closely  together,  and  straw  or  coarse  hay  is  thrown  over 
them  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  or  eighteen  inches.  Pro- 
tected thus  they  arc  accessible  for  market  at  any  time 
during  the  Winter.  If  the  design  is  to  keep  them  over 
till  Spring,  the  covering  may  be  first  six  inches  of  earth, 
to  be  followed  as  cold  increases,  with  six  inches  of  straw, 
litter,  or  eel  grass.  This  latter  is  my  own  practice, 
with  the  addition  of  leaving  a  ridire  of  earth  between 
every  three  or  four  rows  to  act  as  a  support  and  keep 
the  cabbages  from  falling  over.  I  am  also  careful  to 
bring  the  cabbages  to  the  pit  as  soon  as  pulled,  with  the 
earth  among  the  roots  as  little  disturbed  as  possible,  and 
should  the  roots  appear  to  be  dry,  to  throw  a  little  earth 
over  them  after  the  cabbages  are  set  in  the  trench.  The 
few  loose  leaves  remaining  will  prevent  the  earth  from 
sifting  down  between  the  heads,  and  the  air  chambers 
thus  made  answer  a  capital  purpose  in  keeping  out  the 
cold,  as  air  is  one  of  the  best  non-conductors  of  heat. 
It  is  said  that  muck  soil  when  avcII  drained  is  an  excel- 
lent one  to  bury  cabbage  in,  as  its  antiseptic  properties 
preserve  them  from  decay.  If  the  object  is  to  preserve 
the  cabbage  for  market  purposes  only,  the  heads  may  be 
buried  in  the  same  position  in  which  they  grew,  or  they 
may  be  inverted,  the  stump  having  no  value  in  itself; 
but  if  for  seed  purposes,  they  must  be  buried  head  up, 
as  whatever  injures  the  stump  spoils  the  whole  cabbage 
for  that  object.  I  store  between  ten  and  fifty  thousand 
heads  annually  to  raise  seed  from,  and  carry  them 
through   till  planting   time    with    a    degree   of  success 


34  CABBAGES,    HOW    TO    CROW    THEM,    ETC. 

varying  from  a  loss  for  seed  purposes  of  from  one-half 
to  thirty-three  per  cent,  of  the  number  buried  ;  but  if 
handled  early  in  Spring,  many  that  would  be  worthless 
for  seed  purposes  could  be  profitably  marketed.  A  few 
years  since  I  buried  a  lot  with  a  depth  varying  from  one 
to  four  feet,  and  found,  on  uncovering  them  in  the 
Spring,  that  all  had  kept  and  apparcntljr  equally  well. 
In  the  Winter  of  1868  excessively  cold  weather  came 
very  early  and  unexpectedly,  before  my  cabbage  plot 
had  received  its  full  covering  of  litter.  The  consequence 
was  the  frost  penetrated  so  deep  that  it  froze  through 
the  heads  into  the  stumps,  and  when  Spring  came  a 
large  portion  of  them  came  out  spoilt  for  seed  purposes, 
though  most  of  them  sold  readily  in  the  market.  A 
cabbage  is  rendered  worthless  for  seed  when  the  frost 
strikes  through  the  stump  where  it-joins  the  head  ;  and 
though  to  the  unpracticed  eye  all  may  appear  right,  yet, 
if  the  heart  of  the  stump  has  a  water-soaked  appear- 
ance on  being  cut  into,  it  will  almost  uniformly  decay 
just  below  the  head  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  after 
having  been  planted  out.  If  there  is  a  probability  that 
the  stumps  have  been  frozen  through,  examine  the  plot 
early,  and,  if  it  proves  so,  sell  the  cabbages  for  eating 
purposes,  no  matter  how  sound  and  handsome  the  heads 
look  ;  if  you  delay  until  time  for  planting  out  the  cab- 
bage for  seed,  meanwhile  much  waste  will  occur.  I 
once  lost  heavily  in  Marblehead  Mammoth  cabbage  by 
having  them  buried  on  a  hill-side  with  a  gentle  slope. 
In  the  course  of  the  Winter  they  fell  over  on  their  sides, 
which  let  down  the  soil  from  above,  and,  closing  the 
air  chambers  between  them,  brought  the  huge  heads  into 
a  mass,  and  the  result  was  a  large  proportion  of  them 
rotted  badly.     At  another  time  I  lost  a  whole  plot  by 


CABBAGES,    HOW   TO    GROW   THEM,    ETC.  35 

burying  them  in  soil  between  ledges  of  rock,  which 
kept  the  ground  very  wet  when  Spring  opened  ;  the  con- 
sequence was  every  cabbage  rotted.  If  the  heads  arc 
frozen  more  than  two  or  three  leaves  deep  before  they 
are  pitted,  they  will  not  come  out  so  handsome  in  the 
Spring;  but  cabbages  are  very  hardy  and  they  readily 
rally  from  a  little  freezing  either  in  the  open  ground  or 
after  they  are  buried,  though  it  is  best  when  they  arc 
frozen  in  the  open  ground  to  let  them  remain  there  until 
the  frost  comes  out  before  removing  them  if  it  can  be 
done  without  too  much  risk  of  freezing  still  deeper,  as 
they  handle  better  then,  for  being  tougher  the  leaves  are 
not  so  easily  broken.  If  the  soil  is  frozen  to  any  depth 
before  the  cabbages  are  removed,  the  roots  will  be  likely 
to  be  injured  in  the  pulling,  a  matter  of  no  consequence 
if  the  cabbages  are  intended  for  market,  but  of  some 
importance  if  they  are  for  seed  raising.  Large  cab- 
bages are  more  easily  pulled  by  giving  them  a  little 
twist ;  if  for  seed  purposes  this  should  be  avoided,  as  it 
injures  the  stump.  A  small  lot  that  are  to  be  used  with- 
in a  month  can  be  kept  hung  up  by  the  stump  in  the 
cellar  of  a  dwelling  house  ;  they  will  keep  in  this  way 
until  Spring,  but  the  outer  leaves  will  dry  and  turn  yel- 
low, the  heads  shrink  some  in  size,  and  be  apt  to  lose  in 
quality.  Some  practice  putting  clean  chopped  straw  in 
the  bottom  of  a  box  or  barrel,  wetting  it,  and  covering 
witli  heads  trimmed  ready  for  cooking,  adding  again 
wet  straw  and  a  layer  of  heads,  so  alternating  until  the 
barrel  or  box  is  filled,  after  which  it  is  headed  up  and 
kept  in  a  cool  place,  at  or  a  little  below  the  freezing 
point.  No  doubt  this  is  an  excellent  way  to  preserve  a 
small  lot,  as  it  has  the  two  essentials  to  success,  keep- 
ing them  cool  and  moist. 


36       CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC. 

Instead  of  burying  them  in  an  upright  position,  after 
a  deep  farrow  lias  been  made  the  cabbages  are  sometimes 
laid  on  their  sides  two  deep,  with  their  roots  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  furrow,  and  covered  with  earth  in  this  posi- 
tion. Where  the  Winter  climate  is  so  mild  that  a  shal- 
low covering  will  be  sufficient  protection,  this  method 
saves  much  labor. 

HAVING  CABBAGE  MAKE  HEADS  IX  WINTER. 

When  a  piece  of  drumhead  has  been  planted  very 
late,  (sometimes  they  are  planted  on  ground  broken  up 
after  a  crop  of  hay  has  been  taken  from  it  the  same 
season,)  there  will  be  a  per  cent,  of  the  plants  when  the 
growing  season  is  over  that  have  not  headed.  With  care 
almost  all  of  these  can  be  made  to  head  during  the 
Winter.  A  few  years  ago  I  selected  my  seed  heads 
from  a  large  piece  and  then  sold  the  first  "pick,"  of 
what  remained  at  ten  cents  a  head,  the  second  at  eight 
cents,  and  so  down  until  all  were  taken  for  which  pur- 
chasers were  willing  to  give  one  cent  each.  Of  course, 
after  such  a  thorough  selling  out  as  this  there  was  not 
much  in  the  shape  of  a  head  left.  I  now  had  what  re- 
mained pulled  up  and  carted  away,  doubtful  whether  to 
feed  them  to  the  cows  or  to  set  them  out  to  head  up 
during  Winter.  As  they  were  very  healthy  plants  in 
the  full  vigor  of  growth,  having  rudimentary  heads  just 
gathering  in,  I  determined  to  set  them  out.  I  had  a  pit 
dug  deep  enough  to  bring  the  tops  of  the  heads,  when 
the  plants  were  stood  upright  as  they  grew,  just  above 
the  surface  of  the  ground  ;  I  then  stood  the  cabbages 
in  without  breaking  off  any  of  the  leaves,  keeping  the 
roots  well  covered  with  earth,  having  the  plants  far 
enough  apart  not  to  crowd  each  other  very  much,  though 


CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC.       37 

so  near  as  to  press  somewhat  together  the  two  outer 
circles  of  leaves.  They  were  allowed  to  remain  in  this 
condition  until  it  was  cold  enough  to  freeze  the  ground 
an  inch  in  thickness,  when  a  covering  of  coarse  hay  was 
thrown  over  them  a  couple  of  inches  thick,  and,  as  the 
cold  increased  in  intensity,  this  covering  was  increased 
to  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  thickness,  the  additions  being- 
made  at  two  or  three  intervals.  In  the  Spring  I  uncov- 
ered the  lot,  and  found  that  nearly  every  plant  had 
headed  up.  I  sold  the  heads  for  four  cents  a  pound,  and 
these  refuse  cabbages  averaged  me  about  ten  cents  a 
head,  which  was  the  price  my  best  heads  brought  me  in 
the  Fall.  I  have  seen  thousands  of  cabbages  in  0'ie  lot, 
the  refuse  of  several  acres  that  had  been  planted  on  sod 
land  broken  up  the  same  season  a  crop  of  hay  had  been 
taken  from  it,  made  to  head  by  this  course,  and  sold  in 
the  Spring  for  $1.80  per  barrel.  When  there  is  a  large 
lot  of  such  cabbages  the  most  economical  way  to  plant 
them  will  be  in  furrows  made  by  the  plough.  Most  of 
the  bedding  used  in  covering  them,  if  it  be  as  coarse  as 
it  ought  to  be  to  admit  as  much  air  as  possible  while  it 
should  not  mat  down  on  the  cabbages,  will,  with  care  in 
drying,  be  again  available  for  covering  another  season, 
or  remain  suitable  for  bedding  purposes.  These  "  Win- 
ter headed"  cabbages,  as  they  are  called  in  the  market, 
are  not  so  solid  and  have  more  shrinkage  to  them  than 
those  headed  in  the  open  ground  ;  hence  they  will  not 
bear  transportation  as  well,  neither  will  they  keep  as 
long  when  exposed  to  the  air.  The  effect  of  wintering 
cabbage  by  burying  in  the  soil  is  to  make  them  exceed- 
ingly tender  for  table  use. 


38        CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC. 

VARIETIES  OF    CABBAGE. 

If  a  piece  of  land  is  planted  with  seed  grown  from 
two  heads  of  cabbage  the  product  will  bear  a  striking 
resemblance  to  the  two  parent  cabbages,  with  a  third 
variety  which  will  combine  the  characteristics  of  these 
two,  yet  the  resemblance  will  be  somewhat  modified  at 
times  by  a  little  more  manure,  a  little  higher  culture,  a 
little  better  location,  and  the  addition  of  an  individual- 
ity that  particular  vegetables  occasionally  take  upon 
themselves  which  we  signify  by  the  word  "  sport."  The 
"  sports"  when  they  occur  are  fixed  and  perpetuated 
with  remarkable  readiness  in  the  cabbage  family,  as  is 
proved  by  the  great  number  of  varieties  in  cultivation, 
the  numerous  progeny  of  one  ancestor.  The  catalogues 
of  the  English  and  French  seedsmen  contain  long  lists 
of  varieties,  many  of  which  (and  this  is  especially  true 
of  the  early  kinds)  are  either  the  same  variety  under  a 
different  name  or  are  different  "strains"  of  the  same 
variety  produced  by  the  careful  selections  of  prominent 
market  gardeners  through  a  series  of  years. 

Four  different  seasons  I  have  experimented  with  for- 
eign and  American  varieties  of  cabbage  to  learn  the 
characteristics  of  the  different  kinds,  their  comparative 
earliness,  size,  shape,  and  hardness  of  head,  length  of 
stump,  and  such  other  facts  as  would  prove  of  value  to 
market  gardeners.  There  is  one  fact  that  every  care- 
ful experimenter  soon  learns,  that  one  season  will  not 
teach  all  that  can  be  known  relative  to  a  variety,  and 
that  a  number  of  specimens  of  each  kind  must  be  raised 
to  enable  one  to  make  a  fair  comparison.  It  is  amusing 
to  read  the  dicta  which  appear  in  the  agricul  ural  press 
from  those  who  have  made  but  a  single  experiment  with 
some  vegetable  ;  they  proclaim  more  after  a  single  trial 


CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM  ETC.        39 

than  a  cautious  experimenter  would  dare  to  declare  after 
years  spent  in  careful  observation.  The  year  1869  I 
raised  over  sixty  varieties  of  cabbage,  importing  nearly 
complete  suites  of  those  advertised  by  the  leading  English 
and  French  seed  houses,  and  collecting  the  principal 
kinds  raised  in  this  country.  I  do  not  propose  describ- 
ing all  these  in  this  treatise  or  their  comparative  merits  ; 
of  some  of  them  I  have  yet  something  to  learn,  but  I 
will  endeavor  to  introduce  with  my  description  such 
notes  as  I  think  will  prove  of  value  to  my  fellow  farmers 
and  market  gardeners. 

I  will  here  say  in  general  of  the  class  of  early  cab- 
bages, that  most  of  them  have  elongated  heads  between 
ovoid  and  conical  in  form.  They  appear  to  lack  in  this 
country  the  sweetness  and  tenderness  that  characterize 
some  varieties  of  our  drumhead,  and  consequently  in  the 
North  when  the  drumhead  enters  the  market  there  is 
but  a  limited  call  for  them. 

It  may  be  well  here  to  note  a  fundamental  distinction 
between  the  drumhead  cabbage  of  England  and  those  of 
this  country.  In  England  the  drumhead  class  are 
almost  wholly  raised  to  feed  to  stock  ;  I  venture  the 
conjecture  that  this  is  owing  in  part,  or  principally,  to 
the  fact  that,  being  raised  for  cattle,  European  gardeners 
have  never  had  the  motive  and  consequently  have  never 
developed  the  full  capacity  of  the  drumhead  as  cxampled 
by  the  fine  varieties  raised  in  this  country.  The  secur- 
ing of  sorts  reliable  for  heading  being  therefore  a  matter 
of  secondary  consideration,  seed  is  raised  from  stumps 
or  any  refuse  heads  that  may  be  standing  when  Spring 
comes  around.  For  this  reason  English  drumhead  cab- 
bage seed  is  better  suited  to  raise  a  mass  of  leaves  than 
heads,  and  always  disappoints  our  American  farmers 
who  buy  it  because  it  is  cheap   with   the  expectation    of 


40  CABBAGES,    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM,    ETC. 

raising  cabbages  for  market.  English  grown  drumhead 
cabbage  seed  is  utterly  worthless  for  use  in  this  country 
except  to  raise  greens  or  collards. 

The  following  are  foreign  varieties  that  are  accepted 
in  this  country  as  standards,  and  for  years  have  been 
more  or  less  extensively  cultivated  :  Early  York, 
Large  York,  Early  Oxheart,  Large  French  Oxheart, 
Early  Sugar  Loaf,  Early  Winnigstadt,  Red  Dutch, 
Red  Drumhead.  Of  these  the  Large  French  Oxheart, 
Red  Drumhead  and  Early  Winnigstadt  have  had  a  some- 
what recent  introduction,  the  two  latter  having  grown 
rapidly  in  popularity.  In  my  experience  as  a  seed 
dealer,  the  Sugar  Loaf  and  Oxheart  are  losing  ground 
in  the  farming  community,  t'le  Early  Jersey  Wakefield 
having  to  a  large  extent  replaced  them. 

Early  York.  Heads  nearly  ovoid,  pretty  hard  for 
an  early  sort,  with  few  waste  loaves  surrounding  them, 
which  are  of  a  bright  green  cjlor.  Reliable  for  heading. 
Stump  rather  short.  Plant  two  feet  by  eighteen  inches. 
This  cabbage  has  been  cultivated  in  England  over  a 
hundred  years.  Little  Pixte  and  Carter's  Superfine 
Early  are  with  me  each  of  them  earlier  than  Early 
York,  are  as  reliable  for  heading,  head  much  harder, 
and  are  of  better  flavor  ;  the  first  does  not  grow  as 
large,  but  the  second  I  think  does,  and  is  therefore  much 
preferable  to  it. 

Larg3  York  is  about  a  fortnight  later  than  Early 
York  ;  heads  larger,  not  so  long,  and  more  solid  ;  leaves 
gather  closer  around  the  head  ;  stumps  short.  It  is  as- 
serted that  this  variety  is  less  affected  by  heat  than  sev- 
eral other  kinds,  and  hence  is  a  good  cabbage  for  the 
South. 


CABBAGES,    HOW   TO    GROW    THEM,    ETC. 


41 


Early  Oxheart.  Heads  nearly  egg-shaped,  small, 
hard,  few  waste  leaves,  stumps  short.  A  little  later  than 
Early  York.  Have  the  rows  two  feet  apart,  and  the 
plants  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  row. 

Large  French  Oxheart  closely  resembles  Early 
Oxheart,  but  grows  to  double  the  size,  and  is  about  ten 
days  later  ;  quality  usually  good.  An  excellent  kind  for 
large  early,  but,  like  all  others  of  the  oblong  headed 
cabbages,  must  in  this  country  be  marketed  before  the 
drumhead  class  mature  or  the    crop  becomes  unsalable. 

Early  Sugar  Loaf.  Heads  shaped  much  like  a 
loaf  of  sugar  standing  on  its  smaller  end,  resembling, 
as  Burr  well  says,  a  head  of  Cos  lettuce  in  its  shape  and 
in  the  peculiar  clasping  of  the  leaves  about  the  head. 
Heads  rather  hard,  medium  size  ;  early,  and  tender.  It 
is  said  not  to  stand  the  heat  as  well  as  most  sorts. 
Plant,  in  rows  two  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  from  eigh- 
teen to  twenty  inches  in  the  row. 

Early  Winnigstadt.     (A  German  cabbage.) 


.am 


Heads  nearly  conical  in  shape  having  usually  a  twist  of 


42       CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC. 

leaf  at  the  top  ;  larger  than  Oxlieart,  are  harder  than 
any  of  the  early  oblong  heading  cabbages  ;  stumps  mid- 
dling short.  Matures  about  ten  days  later  than  Early 
York.  The  Winnigstadt  is  remarkably  reliable  for 
heading,  being  not  excelled  in  this  respect  when  the 
seed  has  been  raised  with  care,  by  any  cabbage  grown. 
It  is  a  capital  sort  for  Early  Market  outside  our  large 
cities  where  the  very  early  kinds  are  net  so  eagerly 
craved.  It  is  so  reliable  for  heading  that  it  will  often 
make  fine  heads  where  other  sorts  fail,  and  I  would  ad- 
vise all  who  have  not  succeeded  in  their  efforts  to  grow 
cabbage  to  try  this  before  giving  up  their  attempts.  It 
is  raised  by  some  for  Winter  use,  and  where  the  drum 
heads  are  not  so  successfully  raised  I  would  advise  my 
farmer  friends  to  try  the  Winnigstadt,  as  the  heads  are 
so  hard  that  they  keep  without  much  waste.  Have  rows 
two  feet  apart,  and  plant  twenty  inches  to  two  feet  apart 
in  the  rows. 

Red  Dutch.  Heads  nearly  conical,  medium  sized, 
hard,  of  a  very  deep  red  ;  outer  leaves*  numerous,  and 
not  so  red  as  the  head,  being  somewhat  mixed  with 
green  ;  stump  rather  long.  This  cabbage  is  usually 
planted  too  late  ;  it  requires  nearly  the  whole  season  to 
mature.  It  is  used  for  pickling,  or  cut  up  fine  as  a  sal- 
ad served  with  vinegar  and  pepper.  This  is  a  very  ten- 
der cabbage,  and  were  it  not  for  its  color  would  be  an 
excellent  sort  to  boil ;  to  those  who  have  a  mind  to  eat 
it  with  their  eyes  shut,  this  objection  will  not  apply. 

Red  Drumhead.  Like  the  preceding  with  the  ex- 
ception that  the  heads  grow  round  or  nearly  so,  are 
harder,  and  of  double  the  size.  Care  should  be  taken 
not  to  run  these  cabbages  too  large,  as  they  will,  begin 
to  lose  in  color,  which  lessens  their  value    for  pickling 


CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC.       43 

and  salad  uses.  It  is  very  difficult  to  raise  seed  from 
this  cabbage  in  this  country.  I  am  acquainted  with  five 
trials  made  in  as  many  different  years,  two  of  which  I 
made  myself,  and  all  were  nearly  utter  failures,  the 
yield  when  the  hardest  heads  were  selected  being  at 
about  the  rate  of  two  great  spoonfuls  of  seed  from  every 
twenty  cabbages.  French  seed  growers  are  more  suc- 
cessful, otherwise  this  seed  would  have  to  sell  at  a  far 
higher  figure  in  the  market  than  any  other  sort. 

The  Little  Pixie,  a  recent  introduction,  has  much 
to  recommend 
it  in  quality, 
reliability  for 
heading,  and 
hardness  o  f 
the  head  ;  be- 
ing earlier 
than  Early 
York,  though 
somewhat 
smaller,  it  is 
to  be  lamented  if  it  docs  not  ultimately  sweep  away 
that  variety. 

Among  those  that  deserve  to  be  heartily  welcomed 
and  grow  in  favor,  are  the  Early  Ulm  Savoy  (for  en- 
graving and  description  of  which  see  under  head  of  Sa- 
voy,) Early  Vanack,  (a  very  early  conical  heading 
sort,)  Early  Nonpareil,  (another  closely  allied  vari- 
ety ?) — both  these  latter  being  among  the  earliest, — and 
the  St.  Dennis  Drumhead,  a  late,  short-stumped  sort, 
setting  a  large,  round,  very  solid  head,  as  large  but 
harder  than  Premium  Flat  Dutch.  The  leaves  arc  of  a 
bluish  green  and  thicker  than  those  of  most  varieties  of 


44 


CABBAGES. 


drumhead.  Our  brethren  in  Canada  think  highly  of 
this  cabbage,  and  if  we  want  to  try  a  new  drumhead,  I 
will  speak  a  good  word  for  this  one. 

Early  Schweinfurt  or  Schweinfurt  Quintal 
is  a  new  but  excellent  early  drumhead  ;  the  heads  range 
in  size  from  ten  to  eighteen  inches  in  diaueter,  varying 


rtte^®Siltei 


with  the  conditions  of  cultivation  more  than  any  other 
cabbage  I  am  acquainted  with.  The  heads  are  flattish 
round,  weigh  from  three  to  nine  pounds  when  well 
grown,  arc  very  symmetrical  in  shape,  standing  apart 
from  the  surrounding  leaves.  They  are  not  solid,  though 
they  have  the  finished  appearance  that  solidity  gives  ; 
they  are  remarkably  tender  as  though  blanched,  and  of 
very  fine  flavor.  It  is  among  the  earliest  of  drumheads, 
maturing  at  about  the  same  time  as  the  Early  Winnig- 
stadt.  As  an  early  drumhead  for  the  family  garden  it 
has  no  superior ;  and  where  the  market  is  near  and 
does  not  insist  that  a  cabbage  head  must  be  haH  to  be 
good,  it  has  proved  a  very  profitable  market  sort. 


CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC.        45 

The  following  are  the  standard  American  varieties  of 
cabbage;  Early  Wakefield,  Early  Wyman,  Crane's 
Early,  Cannon  Ball,  Early  Low  Dutch,  Premium 
Flat  Dutch,  Stone  Mason,  Large  Late  Drumhead, 
Marblehead  Mammoth  Drumhead,  American  Green 
Glazed,  Fottler's  Drumhead,  Bergen  Drumhead, 
Drumhead  Savoy,  and  American  Green  Globe  Savoy. 
All  of  these  varieties  as  I  have  previously  stated  are  but 
improvements  of  foreign  kinds  ;  but  they  are  so  far  im- 
proved through  years  of  careful  selection  and  cultivation, 
that  as  a  rule  they  appear  quite  distinct  from  the  origi- 
nal kinds  when  grown  side  by  side  with  them,  and  this 
distinction  is  more  or  less  recognized  in  both  English 
and  American  catalogues  by  the  adjective  "  American" 
or  "  English"  being  added  after  varieties  bearing  the 
same  name. 

Early  Wakefield,  sometimes  called  Early  Jersey 

Wakefield.-—  ^r~v^^~-v  -j^Mmzb 

Heads  mostly 
nearly  conical  in 
shape  but  some- 
times nearly 
round,  of  good 
size  for  early, 
very  reliable  for 
heading;  stumps 
short.  A  very 
popular  early 
cabbage  in  the  markets  of  Boston  and  New  York.  Plant 
two  and  a  half  feet  by  two  feet. 

Early  Wyman.  This  cabbage  is  na^ed  after  Capt. 
Wyman    of    Cambridge,   the   originator.       Like    Early 


46 


CABBAGES.    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM,    ETC. 


Wakefield  the  heads  are  usually  somewhat  conical,  but 
sometimes  nearly  round  ;  in  structure  they  arc  compact. 
In  earliness  it  ranks 
about  with  the  Early 
Wakefield,  and  mak 
ing  heads  of  double 
the  size,  it  has  a  high 
value  as  an  early 
cabbage.  Captain 
Wyman  had  entire 
control  of  this  cab- 
bage until  within 
the  past  few  years,  and  consequently  has  held  Boston 
Market  in  his  own  hands  to  the  chagrin  of  his  fellow  mar- 
ket gardeners,  raising  some  seasons  as  many  as  thirty 
thousand  heads.  Have  the  rows  from  two  to  two  and  a 
half  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  from  twenty  to  twenty-four 
inches  apart  in  the  row.  Crane's  Early  is  a  cross  be- 
tween the  Wyman  and  Wakefield,  intermediate  in  size 
and  earliness. 

Premium  Flat  Dutch.     A  large,  late  variety;  heads 
either  round  or 
fiat,  on  the  top, 
(  v  a  r  y  i  n  g 
with     differ- 
ent   strains) 
rather   hard, 
color    bluish" 
green,  leaves 
around  heads 
rather  numcr 
ous  ;  towards 
the     close  of 
the    season, 


4T 

the  edge  of  some  of  the  exterior  leaves  and  the 
top  of  the  heads  assume  a  purple  cast.  The  edges  of 
the  exterior  leaves  and  of  the  two  or  three  that  make 
the  outside  of  the  head  are  quite  ruffled  so  that  when 
grown  side  by  side  with  Stone  Mason,  this  distinction 
between  the  habit  of  growth  of  the  two  varieties  is  no- 
ticeable at  quite  a  distance.  Stumps  short  ;  reliable  for 
heading.  Have  the  rows  three  feet  apart,  and  the 
plants  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  apart-  in  the 
rows.  This  cabbage  is  very  widely  cultivated,  and  in 
many  respects  is  an  excellent  sort  to  raise  for  late  mar- 
keting. 

Early  Low  Dutch.  Heads  round,  medium  sized, 
solid.  Outside  leaves  few  in  number  ;  stalk  thick  and 
short.  Medium  early,  tender  and  of  good  quality.  Plant 
two  and  a  half  feet  by  two. 

Stone  Mason.  An  improvement  on  the  Mason, 
which  cabbage  was  selected  by  Mr.  John  Mason  of  Mar- 
blehead,  from  a  number  of 
varieties  of  cabbage  that  came 
from  a  lot  of  seed  purchased 
and  planted  as  Savoys.  Mr. 
John  Stone  afterwards  im- 
proved upon  the  Mason  cab- 
bage, by  increasing  the  size 
of  the  heads.  Different  grow- 
ers differ  in  their  standard 
of  a  Stone  Mason  cabbage,  in  earliness  and  lateness, 
and  in  the  size,  form  and  hardness  of  the  head.  But 
all  these  varieties  agree  in  the  characteristics  of  being 
very  reliable  for  heading,  in  having  heads,  which  are 
large,  very  hard,  very  tender,  rich   and   sweet ;  short 


48  CABBAGES,    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM,    ETC. 

stumps,  and  few  waste  leaves.  The  color  of  the  leaves. 
varies  from  a  bluish  green  to  a  pea  green,  and  the  struc- 
ture from  nearly  smooth  to  much  blistered.  In  their 
color  and  blistering  some  specimens  have  almost  a  Savoy 
cast.  The  beads,  of  the  best  varieties  of  Stone  Mason 
range  in  weight- from  six  to  twenty -five  pounds,  the  dif- 
ference turning  mostly  on  soil,  manure  and   cultivation. 

The  Stone  Mason  is  an  earlier  cabbage  than  Premium 
Flat  Dutch,  has  fewer  waste  leaves,  and  side  by  side 
under  high  cultivation  grows  to  an  equal  or  larger  size, 
while  it  makes  heads  that  arc  decidedly  harder  and 
sweeter.  These  cabbages  are  equally  reliable  for  head- 
ing. I  am  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  under  poor  cul- 
tivation the  Premium  Flat  Dutch  will  do  somewhat 
better  than  the  Stone  Mason. 

Until  the  introduction  of  Fottler  s  Drumhead  it  was 
the  standard  drumhead  cabbage  in  the  markets  of  Bos- 
ton and  other  large  cities  of  the  North.  Recently  this 
fine  cabbage  has,  in  some  localities,  shown  a  tendency 
to  rot  at  the  stump  before  maturing  its  head.  I  trust 
that  the  trouble  is  but  local  and  temporary.  Have  the 
rows  three  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  from  two  to  three 
feet  apart  in  the  row. 

Large  Late  Drumhead.  Heads  large,  round, 
sometimes  flattened  at  the  top,  close  and  firm;  loose 
leaves  numerous  ;  stems  short  ;  reliable  for  heading, 
hardy,  and  a  good  keeper.  The  name  "  Large  Late 
Drumhead"  includes  varieties  raised  by  Messrs.  Collins 
&  Anderson,  Buist,  and  several  other  seedsmen  in  this 
country,  all  of  which  resemble  each  other  in  the  above 
characteristics,  and  differ  in  but  minor  points.  Have 
rows  three  feet  apart,  and  plants  from  two  and  a  half  to 
three  feet  apart  in  the  row. 


CABBAGES,    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM,    ETC.  49 

Marblehead  Mammoth  Drumhead.  This  is  the 
largest  of  the  cabbage  family,  having  sometimes  been 
grown  to  weigh  over  sixty  pounds  to  the  plant.     It  orig- 


inated in  Marblehead,  Massachusetts,  being  produced 
by  Mr.  Alley,  probably  from  the  Mason,  by  years  of 
high  cultivation  and  careful  selection  of  seed  stock.  I 
introduced  this  cabbage  and  the  Stone  Mason  to  the 
general  public  many  years  ago,  and  it  has  been  pretty 
thoroughly  disseminated  throughout  the  United  States. 
Heads  varying  in  shape  between  hemispherical  and 
spherical,  with  but  few  waste  leaves  surrounding  them; 
size  very  large,  varying  from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches  in 
diameter,  and  in  some  specimens  they  have  grown  to 
the  extraordinary  dimensions  of  twenty-four  inches.  In 
good  soil  and  with  the  highest  culture  this  variety  has 
attained  an  average  weight  of  thirty  pounds  by  the  acre. 
Quality  when  well  grown  remarkably  sweet  and  tender, 
as  would  be  inferred  from  the  rapidity  of  its  growth. 
Cultivate  in  rows  four  feet  apart,  and  allow  four  feet  be- 
tween the  plants  in  the  rows.  Sixty  tons  of  this  variety 
have  been  raised  from  a  single  acre. 


50  CABBAGES,    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM,    ETC. 

American  Green  Glazed.  Heads  loose  though 
rather  large,  with  a  great  body  of  waste  leaves  sur- 
rounding them  ;  quality  poor  ;  late  ;  stump  long.  This 
cabbage  was  readily  distinguished  among  all  the  varie- 
ties in  my  experimental  plot  by  the  deep,  rich  green  of 
the  leaves  with  their  bright  lustre  as  though  varnished. 
It  is  grown  somewhat  extensively  in  the  South,  as  it  is 
believed  not  to  be  so  liable  to  injury  from  insects  as 
other  varieties.  Plant  two  and  a  half  feet  apart  each 
way.  I  would  advise  my  Southern  friends  to  try  the 
merits  of  other  kinds  before  adopting  this  poor  affair.  I 
know,  through  my  correspondence,  that  the  Mammoth 
has  done  well  as  far  South  as  Louisiana  and  Cuba,  and 
the  Fottler  in  many  sections  of  the  South  has  given 
great  satisfaction. 

Fottler's  Early  Drumhead.  Several  years  ago  a 
Boston  Seedsman  imported  a  lot  of  Cabbage  seed  from 
Europe,  under 
the  name  of 
Early  Bruns- 
wick Short 
Stemmed.  It 
proved  to  be  a 
large  heading 
and  very  early 
Drumhead. 
The  heads 
were  from 
eight  to  eigh- 
teen inches  in 
diameter,  near- 
ly flat,  hard,  sweet  and  tender  in  quality  ;  few  waste 
leaves ;  stump  short.     In  earliness  it  was  about  a  fort- 


CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC.        51 

night  ahead  of  the  Stone  Mason.  It  was  so  much  liked 
by  the  Market  gardeners  that  the  next  season  he  ordered 
a  larger  quantity,  but  the  second  importation,  though 
ordered  and  sent  under  the  same  name,  proved  to  be  a 
different  and  inferior  kind,  and  the  same  result  followed 
one  or  two  other  importations.  The  two  gardeners  who 
received  seed  of  the  first  importation  brought  to  market 
a  fine  large  Drumhead,  ten  days  or  a  fortnight  ahead  of 
their  fellows.  The  seed  of  the  true  stock  was-  eagerly 
bought  up  by  the  Boston  market  gardeners,  most  of  it  at 
$5  an  ounce.  After  an  extensive  trial  on  a  large  scale 
by  the  market  farmers  around  Boston,  and  by  farmers 
in  various  parts  of  the  United  States,  Fottler's  Cabbage 
lias  given  great  satisfaction,  and  has  become  a  universal 
favorite,  and  when  once  known  is  fast  replacing  some  of 
the  old  varieties  of  Drumhead.  Mr.  Tillinghast,  in  his 
valuable  little  work  on  gardening,  ranks  it  emphatically 
at  the  head  of  all  the  drumhead  family,  and  to  those  who 
intend  to  grow  but  a  single  variety,  I  would  heartily 
recommend  the  Fottler.     Very  reliable  for  heading. 

Bergen  Drumhead.  Heads  round,  rather  flat  on 
the  top,  solid  ;  leaves  stout,  thick,  and  rather  numerous  ; 
stump  short.  With  me,  under  same  cultivation,  it  is 
later  than  Stone  mason.  It  is  tender  and  of  good  flavor. 
A  popular  sort  in  many  sections,  particularly  in  the 
markets  of  New  York  city.  Have  the  plants  three 
feet  apafc  each  way. 

Cannon  Ball.  This  cabbage  came  originally  from 
the  Patent  office,  but  as  I  have  been  unable  to  trace  its 
parentage  to  any  foreign  country  in  the  course  of  my 
experiments  with  varieties,  I  think  we  may  as  well  class 
it  as  American  by  default.  The  heads  are  usually 
spherical,  attaining  to  a  diameter  of  from  five  to  nine 


52      •  CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC. 

inches,  with  the  surrounding  leaves  gathered  rather 
closely  around  them  ;  in  hardness  and  relative  weight  it 
is  not  excelled,  if  equalled,  by  any  other  cabbage.  Stump 
short.  It  delights  in  the  highest  cultivation  possible. 
It  is  about  a  week  later  than  Early  York.  In  those 
markets  where  cabbages  are  sold  by  weight,  it  will  pay 
to  grow  for  market ;  it  is  a  good  cabbage  for  the  family 
garden. 

SAYOY  CABBAGE. 

The  Savoys  are  the  tenderest  and  richest  flavored  of 
cabbages,  though  not  always  as  sweet  as  a  well  grown 
Stone  Mason  ;  nor  is  a  Savoy  grown  on  poor  soil  or  one 
that  has  been  pinched  by  drouth  as  tender  as  a  Stone 
Mason  that  has  been  grown  under  favoring  circumstances; 
yet  it  remains  as  a  rule  that  the  Savoy  surpasses  all 
other  cabbages  in  tenderness,  and  in  a  rich  marrow-like 
flavor.  The  Savoys  are  also  the  hardiest  of  the  cabbage 
tribe,  enduring  in  the  open  field  a  temperature  within 
sixteen  degrees  of  zero  without  serious  injury  ;  and  if 
the  heads  are  not  very  hard  they  will  continue  to  with- 
stand repeated  changes  from  freezing  to  thawing  for  a 
couple  of  months,  as  far  north  as  the  latitude  of  Boston. 
A  degree  of  freezing  improves  them,  and  it  is  common 
in  that  latitude  to  let  such  as  are  intended  for  early 
winter  use  in  the  family  remain  standing  in  the  open 
ground  where  they  grew,  cutting  the  heads  as  they  are 
wanted. 

As  a  rule  Savoys  neither  head  as  readily  (the  "  Im- 
proved American  Savoy"  an  exception)  nor  do  the 
heads  grow  as  large  as  the  drumhead  varieties  ;  indeed, 
most  of  the  kinds  in  cultivation  are  so  unreliable  in 
these  respects  as  to  be  utterly  worthless  for  market  pur- 
poses, and  nearly  so  for  the  kitchen  garden. 


CABBAGES,    HOW   TO    GROW    THEM,    ETC.  53 

The  Drumhead  Savoy  sent  out  by  Yilmorin,  An- 
dreiex  &  Co.,  of  France,  is  not  sufficiently  distinct 
from  the  Green  Globe  Savoy  ;  it  is  of  a  bluish  green 
cast,  not  so  fine  in  structure,  and  attains  about  the  same 
size,  but  there  is  not  enough  of  the  drumhead  in  it  to 
make  the  variety  worthy  of  the  name  "  drumhead." 
Folsom's  American  Drumhead  Savoy,  sometimes  called 
Cambridge  Savoy,  is  much  superior,  growing  to  double 
the  size,  while  it  has  enough  of  the  Savoy  character  in 
it  to  mark  it  strongly  both  for  the  eye  and  the  palate. 
One  variety  in  my  experimental  garden,  which  I  received 
as  Tour's  Savoy,  (evidently  a  drumhead  variety  of  the 
Savoy.)  proved  to  be  much  like  Early  Schweinfurt  in 
earlincss  and  style  of  heading  ;  the  heads  were  very 
large,  but  quite  loose  in  structure  ;  I  should  think  it 
would  prove  valuable  for  family  use. 

It  is  a  fact  that  does  not  appear  to  be  generally  known 
that  we  have  among  the  Savoys  some  remarkably  early 
sorts  which  rank  with  the  earliest  varieties  of  cabbage 
grown.  Pancalier  and  Early  Ulm  Savoy  are  earlier 
than  that  old  standard  of  earlincss,  Early  York  ;  Pan- 
calier being  somewhat  earlier  than  Ulm. 

Pancalier  is  characterized  by  very  coarsely  blistered 
leaves  of  the  darkest  green  color ;  the  heads  usually 
gather  together,  being  the  only  exception  I  know  of  to 
the  rule  that  cabbage  heads  are  made  up  of  over-lapping 
leaves,  wrapped  closely  together.  It  has  a  short  stump, 
and  with  high  cultivation  is  reliable  for  heading.  The 
leaves  nearest  the  head,  though  not  forming  a  part  of  it, 
arc  quite  tender  and  may  be  cooked  with  the  head. 
Plant  fifteen  by  thirty  inches. 

Early  Ulm  Savoy  is  a  few  days  later  than  Panca- 


54 


CABBAGES,    HOW   TO    GROW   THEM,    ETC. 


and  makes  a  larger  head  ;  the  leaves  are  of  a  light- 


not   so 


lier 

er  green  and 
coarsely  blistered  ; 
stump  short;  head  round; 
very  reliable  for  head- 
ing. It  has  a  capital 
characteristic  in  not  be- 
ing so  liable  as  most  va- 
rieties to  burst  the  head 
and  push  the  seed  shoot 
immediately  after  the 
head  is  matured.  For 
first  early  I  know  no  cabbages  so  desirable  as  these  for 
the  kitchen  garden. 

The  Early  Dwarf  Savoy  is  a  desirable  variety  of 
second  early.  The  heads  are  rather  flat  in  shape,  and 
grow  to  a  fair  size.     Stumps  short ;  reliable  for  heading. 

Improved  American  Savoy.  Everything  con- 
sidered, this  is  the  Savoy  "  par  excellence"  for  the  mar- 
ket garden.  It  is  a 
true  Savoy,  the 
heads  grow  to  a 
large  size,  from  six 
to  ten  inches  in  di- 
ameter, varying,  of 
course,  with  soil, 
manure  and  cultiva-  3=: 
tion.  In  shape  the  "^pj-;  _^_ 
heads  are  mostly  ~~^~ 
globular,  occasionally  oblong,  having  but  few  waste 
leaves,  and  grow  very  solid.  Stump  short.  In  relia- 
bility for  heading  it  is  unsurpassed  by  any  other  cabbage. 


CABBAGES,    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM,    ETC.  55 

Golden  Savoy  differs  from  other  varieties  in  the 
color  of  the  head,  which  rises  from  the  body  of  light 
green  leaves,  of  a  singular  pale  yellow  color,  as  though 
blanched.  The  stumps  are  long,  and  the  head  rather 
small,  a  portion  of  these  growing  pointed.  It  is  very 
late,  not  worth  cultivating  except  as  a  curiosity. 

Norwegian  Savoy.  This  is  a  singular  half  cab- 
bage, half  kale— at  least,  so  it  has  proved  under  my 
cultivation.  The  leaves  are  long,  narrow,  tasselated, 
and  somewhat  blistered.  The  whole  appearance  is  very 
singular  and  rather  ornamental.  I  have  tried  this  cab- 
bage twice,  but  have  never  got  beyond  the  possible 
promise  of  a  head. 

Victoria  Savoy,  Russian  Savoy  and  Cape 
Savoy,  tested  in  my  experimental  garden,  did  not 
prove  desirable  either  for  family  use  or  for  market  pur- 
poses. 

Feather  Stemmed  Savoy.  This  is  a  cross  be- 
tween the  Savoy  and  brussels  sprouts,  having  the  habit 
of  growth  of  brussels  sprouts. 

I  will  add  notes  on  a  few  other  varieties  in  my  ex- 
perimental plot : 

Large  Brunswick  Short-Stemmed.  (English 
seed.)  Late,  long  stumped,  wild,  plenty  of  leaves,  al- 
most no  head  ;  bears  but  a  slight  resemblance  to  Fot- 
tler's  Drumhead. 

Early  Empress.  Cabbages  well;  heads  conical ; 
early. 

Robinson's  Champion  Ox  Drumhead.  Stump 
long  ;  heads  soft  and  not  very  large  ;  wild. 

English  Winnigstadt.  Long  stumped  ;  irregular; 
not  to  be  compared  with  French  stock. 


56  CABBAGES,    HOW    TO    GROW   THEM,    ETC. 

Blenheim.  Early  ;  heads  mostly  conical ;  of  good 
size. 

Shillings  Queen.  Early ;  heads  conical ;  stumps 
long. 

Carter's  Superfine  Early  Dwarf.  Surpasses  in 
earliness  and  hardness  of  head  all  the  early,  long  head- 
ed sorts,  Little  Pixie,  to  which  it  is  evidently  closely 
allied,  perhaps  excepted. 

Enfield  Market  Improved.  Most  of  the  heads 
were  flat  ;  rather  wild  ;  not  to  be  compared  with  Fottler. 

Kemp's  Incomparable.  Long  headed  ;  heads 
when  mature  do  not  appear  to  burst  as  readily  as  with 
most  of  the  conical  class. 

Fielderkraut.     Closely  resembles  Winnigstadt,  with 

larger  and  longer  heads  and  stunip  ;  requires  more  room 
than  Winnigstadt. 

Ramsay's  Winter  Drumhead .  Closely  resem- 
bles St.  Dennis  ;  I  think  it  is  the  same. 

Pomeranian  Cabbage.  Heads  very  long  ;  quite 
large  for  a  conical  heading  sort  ;  very  symmetrical  and 
hard  ;  color  yellowish  green.  It  handles  well,  and  I 
should  think  would  prove  a  good  keeper.   Medium  early. 

Alsacian  Drumhead.     Stump  long ;  late  :  wild. 

Marbled  Bourgogne.  Stump  long  ;  heads  small 
and  hard  ;  color  a  mixture  of  green  and  red. 

CABBAGE  GREENS. 

In  the  vicinity  of  our  large  cities,  the  market  garden- 
ers sow  large  areas  very  thickly  with  cabbage  seed,  early 
in  the  Spring,  to  raise  young  plants  to  be  sold  as  greens. 
The  seed  is  sown  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  ten  pounds 
and  upwards  to  the  acre.     Seed  of  the  Savoy  cabbage 


CABBAGES,    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM,    ETC.  57 

is  usually  sown  for  this  purpose,  which  may  bo  some- 
times purchased  at  a  discount,  owing  to  some  defect  in 
quality  or  purity  that  would  render  it  worthless  for 
planting  for  a  crop  of  heading  cabbage. 

The  young  plants  arc  cut  off  about  even  with  the 
ground,  when  four  or  five  inches  high,  washed,  and  car- 
ried to  market  in  barrels  or  bushel  boxes.  The  price 
varies  with  the  state  of  the  market,  from  12  cents  to  $3 
a  barrel,  the  average  price  in  Boston  market  being  about 
a  dollar.  With  the  return  of  Spring  most  families  have 
some  cabbage  stumps  remaining  in  the  cellar  ;  these  can 
be  planted  about  a  foot  apart  in  some  handy  spot  along 
the  edge  of  the  garden,  where  they  will  not  interfere 
with  the  general  crop,  setting  them  under  ground  from 
a  quarter  to  a  half  their  length,  depending  on  the  length 
of  the  stumps.  They  will  soon  be  covered  witli  green 
shoots,  which  should  be  used  as  greens  before  the  blos- 
som buds  show  themselves,  as  they  then  become  too 
strong  to  be  agreeable.  If  the  spot  is  rich  and  has  been 
well  dug,  the  rapidity  of  growth  is  surprising  ;  and  if 
the  shoots  are  frequently  gathered,  many  nice  messes  of 
greens  can  be  grown  from  a  few  stumps.  Farmers  in 
Northern  Vermont  tell  me,  that  if  they  break  off  each 
seed  shoot  as  soon  as  it  shows  itself,  close  home  to  the 
stump,  nice  little  heads  will  push  out  on  almost  every 
stump.  In  England,  where  the  Winter  climate  is  much 
milder  than  that  of  New  England,  it  is  the  practice  to 
raise  a  second  crop  of  heads  in  this  way.  I  have  seen 
an  acre  from  which  a  crop  of  drumhead  cabbage  had 
been  cut  off  early  in  the  season,  every  stump  on  which 
had  from  three  to  six  hard  heads,  varying  from  the  size 
of  a  hen's  egg  to  that  of  a  goose  c^  ;  but  to  get  this 
second  growth  of  heads  as  much  of  the  stump  and  leaves 
should  be  left  as  possible,  when  cutting  out  the  original 


58  CABBAGES,    HOW   TO    GROW    THEM,    ETC. 

head.  As  in  the  cabbage  districts  of  the  North  little  or 
no  use  is  made  of  this  prolific  after  growth,  it  is  worse 
than  useless  to  suffer  the  ground  to  be  exhausted  by  it ; 
the  stump  should  be  pulled  by  the  potatoe  hoc  as  soon 
as  the  heads  arc  marketed. 

When  cabbages  arc  planted  out  for  seed,  if  for  any 
reason  the  seed  shoot  fails  to  push  out,  and  at  times 
when  it  does  push  out,  line  sprouts  for  greens  will  start 
below  the  head  ;  when  the  stock  of  these  sprouts  be- 
comes too  tough  for  use,  the  large  leaves  may  be  stripped 
from  them  and  cooked.  I  usually  break  off  the  tender 
tops  of  large  sprouts,  and  then  strip  off  the  tenderest  of 
the  large  leaves  below. 

CABBAGE  FOR  STOCK. 
No  vegetable  raised  in  the  temperate  zone,  Mangold 
Wurtzel  alone  excepted,  will  produce  as  much  food  to  the 
acre,  both  for  man  and  beast,  as  the  cabbage.  I  have 
seen  acres  of  the  Marblehead  Mammoth  drumhead  which 
would  average  thirty  pounds  to  each  cabbage,  some  spec- 
imens weighing  over  sixty  pounds.  The  plants  were 
four  feet  apart  each  way,  which  would  give  a  product  of 
forty  tons  to  the  acre  ;  and  I  have  tested  a  crop  of  Fot- 
tler's  that  yielded  thirty  tons  of  green  food  to  the  half 
acre.  Other  vegetables  are  at  times  raised  for  cattle  feed, 
such  as  potatoes,  carrots,  ruta  bagas,  mangold  wurtzels  ; 
a  crop  of  potatoes  yielding  four  hundred  bushels  to 
the  acre  at  sixty  pounds  the  bushel  would  weigh  twelve 
tons  ;  a  crop  of  carrots  yielding  twelve  hundred  bush, 
els  to  the  acre  would  weigh  thirty  tons ;  and  ruta  bagas 
sometimes  yield  thirty  tons,  and  mangolds  as  high  as 
seventy  tons  to  the  acre.  I  have  set  all  these  crops  at  a 
high  capacity  for  fodder  purposes  ;  the  same  favoring 
conditions  of  soil,  manure,  and  cultivation  that  would 
produce  four  hundred  bushels  of  potatoes,  twelve  him- 


CABBAGES,    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM,    ETC.  59 

dred  bushels  of  carrots,  and  thirty-five  tons  of  ruta  baga 
turnips,  would  give  a  crop  of  forty  tons  of  the  largest 
variety  of  drumhead  cabbage.  If  we  now  consider  the 
comparative  merits  of  these  crops  for  nutriment,  we 
find  that  the  cabbage  excels  them  all  in  this  department 
also.  The  potato  abounds  in  starch,  the  mangold  and 
carrot  are  largely  composed  of  water,  while  the  cabbage 
abounds  in  rich,  nitrogenous  food,  ranking  in  nutriment 
almost  side  by  side  with  the  flesh  of  animals. 

When  cabbage  is  kept  for  stock  feed  later  than  the 
first  severe  frost,  if  the  quantity  is  large  there  is  con- 
siderable waste  even  with  the  best  of  care.  The  loose 
leaves  should  be  fed  first,  and  the  heads  kept  on  the 
stump  in  a  cool  place,  not  more  than  two  or  three  deep, 
at  as  near  the  freezing  point  as  possible.  If  it  has  been 
necessary  to  cut  the  heads  from  the  stumps,  they  may  be 
piled,  after  the  weather  has  set  in  decidedly  cold,  con- 
veniently near  the  barn,  and  kept  covered  with  a  foot  of 
straw  or  old  litter.  As  long  as  a  cabbage  is  kept  frozen 
there  is  no  waste  to  it ;  but  if  it  be  allowed  to  freeze 
and  thaw  two  or  three  times,  it  will  soon  rot  with  an 
awful  stench.  On  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  kept  in  too 
warm  and  dry  a  place,  the  outer  leaves  will  dry,  turning 
yellow,  and  the  whole  head  lose  in  weight, — if  it  be  not 
very  hard,  shriveling,  and  if  hard,  shrinking.  If  they 
are  kept  in  too  warm  and  wet  a  place,  the  heads  will  de- 
cay fast,  in  a  black,  soft  rot.  The  best  way  to  preserve 
cabbages  for  stock  into  the  winter  is  to  place  them  in 
trenches  a  few  inches  below  the  surface,  and  there  cover 
with  from  a  foot  to  two  feet  of  coarse  hay  or  straw,  the 
depth  depending  on  the  coldness  of  the  locality.  When 
the  ground  has  been  frozen  too  hard  to  open  with  a 
plough  or  spade,  I  have  kept  them  until  Spring  by  piling 


60  CABBAGES,    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM,    ETC. 

them  loosely,  hay-stack  shape,  about  four  feet  high,  let- 
ting the  frost  strike  through  them,  and  afterwards  cov- 
ering with  a  couple  of  feet  of  eel  grass  ;  straw  or  coarse 
hay  would  doubtless  do  as  well. 

I  have  treated  of  cabbage  thus  far  when  grown  spec- 
ially for  stock  ;  in  every  piece  of  cabbage  handled  for 
market  purposes,  there  is  a  large  proportion  of  waste 
suitable  for  stock  feed,  which  includes  the  outside  leaves 
and  such  heads  as  have  not  hardened-up  sufficiently  for 
market.  On  walking  over  a  piece  of  three  or  fcur  acres 
one  Fall,  just  after  my  cabbages  for  seed  stock  had  been 
taken  off,  I  noted  that  the  refuse  leaves  that  were  strip- 
ped from  the  heads  before  pulling  were  so  abundant  that 
they  nearly  covered  the  ground.  If  leaves  so  stripped 
remain  exposed  to  frost,  they  soon  spoil ;  or,  if  earlier 
in  the  season  they  are  exposed  to  the  sun,  they  soon  be- 
come yellow,  dry,  and  of  but  little  value.  They  can  be 
rapidly  collected  with  a  hay  fork  and  carted,  if  there  be 
but  a  few,  into  the  barn  ;  should  there  be  a  large  quan- 
tity, dump  them  within  a  convenient  distance  of  the 
barn  or  feeding  ground,  but  not  where  the  cattle  can 
trample  them,  and  spread  them  so  that  they  shall  be 
but  a  few  inches  in  depth.  If  piled  in  heaps  they  will 
quickly  heat;  but  even  then,  if  not  too  much  decayed, 
cattle  will  cat  them  with  avidity. 

If  cabbage  is  fed  to  cows  in  milk  without  some  care, 
it  will  be  apt  to  give  the  milk  a  strong  cabbage  flavor  ; 
all  the  feed  for  the  day  should  be  given  early  in  the 
morning.  Beginning  with  a  small  quantity,  and  gradu- 
ally increasing  it,  the  dairyman  will  soon  learn  his  lim- 
its. The  effect  of  a  liberal  feed  to  milk  stock  is  to  in- 
crease the  flow  of  milk,  under  some  circumstances  more 
than  two  fold.  Avoid  feeding  to  any  extent  while  the 
leaves  are  frozen. 


CABBAGES,    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM,    ETC.  b'i 

An  English  writer  says  ;  "  The  cabbage  comes  into 
use  when  other  things  begin  to  fail,  and  it  is  by  far  the 
best  succulent  vegetable  for  milking  cows — keeping  up 
the  yield  of  milk,  and  preserving  better  than  any  other 
food  some  portion  of  the  quality  which  cheese  loses 
when  the  cows  quit  their  natural  pasturage.  Cows  fed 
on  cabbages  are  always  quiet  and  satisfied,  while  on 
turnips  they  often  scour  and  are  restless.  When  frosted 
they  are  liable  to  produce  hoven  unless  kept  in  a  warm 
shed  to  thaw  before  being  used  ;  fifty-six  pounds  given, 
at  two  meals,  are  as  much  as  a  large  cow  should  have  in 
a  day.  Frequent  cases  of  abortion  are  caused  by  an 
over  supply  of  green  food.  Cabbages  are  excellent  for 
young  animals,  keeping  them  in  health,  and  preventing 
'  black  leg.'  A  calf  of  seven  months  may  have  twenty 
pounds  a  day." 

RAISING  CABBAGE  SEED. 

Cabbage  seed  in  England,  particularly  of  the  drum- 
head sorts  is  mostly  raised  from  stumps,  or  from  the 
refuse  that  remains  after  all  that  is  salable  has  been  dis- 
posed of.  The  agent  of  one  of  the  largest  English  seed 
houses,  a  few  years  since,  laughed  at  my  "  wastefulness" 
as  he  termed  it,  in  raising  seed  from  solid  heads.  In 
this  country  cabbage  seed  is  mostly  raised  from  soft, 
half-formed  heads,  which  are  grown  as  a  late  crop,  few, 
if  any  of  them,  being  hard  enough  to  be  of  any  value  in 
the  market.  Seedsmen  practice  selecting  a  few  fine 
hard  heads  from  which  to  raise  their  seed  stock.  It  has 
been  my  practice  to  grow  seed  from  none  but  extra  fine 
heads,  better  than  the  average  of  those  carried  to  mar- 
ket. I  do  this  on  the,  theory  that  no  cabbage  can  be  too 
good  for  a  seed  head,  if  the  design  is  to  keep  the  stock 
first  class.     Perhaps  such  strictness  may  not  be  necessa- 


62  CABBAGES,    HOW    TO   GROW    THEM,    ETC. 

ry,  but  I  bad  rather  err  in  setting  out  too  good  heads 
than  too  poor  ones  ;  besides,  the  great  hardness  obtained 
by  the  heads  of  the  Stone  Mason  makes  it  possible,  at 
least,  that  1  am  right.  Cabbage  raised  from  seed  grown 
from  stumps  are  apt  to  be  unreliable  for  heading  and  to 
grow  long-stumped,  though  under  unfavorable  conditions 
long  stumped  and  poor  headed  cabbage  may  grow  from 
the  best  of  seed.  To  have  the  best  of  seed  all  shoots 
that  start  below  the  head  should  be  broken  off.  ^  The 
shoots  should  be  protected  from  the  wind  by  being  tied 
to  stakes,  and  scarecrows  should  be  set  up,  or  some  like 
precaution  be  taken  to  keep  away  the  little  seed  birds 
that  begin  to  crack  the  pods  as  soon  as  they  commence 
to  ripen.  A  plaster  cat  is  a  very  good  scarecrow  to 
frighten  away  birds  from  seed  and  small  fruits,  if  its 
location  is  changed  every  few  days. 

I  find  that  the  pods  of  cabbage  seed  grown  South  are 
tough,  and  not  brittle  like  those  grown  North,  and  hence 
that  they  are  injured  but  little,  if  any,  by  seed  birds- 
When  the  seed  pods  have  passed  what  seedsmen  call 
their  "  red'^  stage,  they  begin  to  harden  ;  as  soon  as  a 
third  of  them  are  brown  the  entire  stalk  may  be  cut  and 
hung  up  in  a  dry,  airy  place,  for  a  few  days,  when  the 
seed  will  be  ready  for  rubbing  or  threshing  out.  Differ- 
ent varieties  should  be  raised  far  apart  to  insure  purity  ; 
and  cabbage  seed  had  better  not  be  raised  in  the  vicinity 
of  turnip  seed.  There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as 
to  the  effect  of  growing  these  near  each  other ;  where 
the  two  vegetables  blossom  at  the  same  time,  I  should 
fear  an  admixture.  When  the  care  requisite  to  select 
good  seed  stock  and  the  trouble  of  keeping  it  over  win- 
ter, planting  it  in  isolated  locations,  protecting  it  from 
wind  and  weather,  guarding  it  from  injury  from  birds 
and  other  enemies,  gathering  it,  cleaning  it,  are  all 
considered,  few  men  will  find  that  they  can  afford  to 


CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC.       63 

raise  their  own  seed,  provided  they  can  buy  it  from  re- 
liable seedsmen. 

COOKING  CABBAGE,  SOUR  KROUT,  &e. 

Cabbage  when  boiled  with  salt  pork,  as  it  is  mostly 
used,  is  the  food  for  strong  and  healthy  digestive  powers; 
but  when  eaten  in  its  raw  state  served  with  vinegar  and 
pepper  it  is  considered  one  of  the  most  easily  digested 
articles  of  diet.  In  the  process  of  cooking,  even  with 
the  greatest  care,  a  large  portion  of  the  sweetness  is 
lost.  The  length  of  time  required  to  cook  cabbage  by 
boiling  varies  with  the  quality,  those  of  the  best  quality 
requiring  about  twenty  minutes,  while  others  require  an 
hour.  In  cooking  put  it  into  boiling  water  in  which  a 
little  salt  or  soda  has  been  sprinkled  which  will  tend  to 
preserve  the  natural  green  color.  It  will  be  well  to 
change  the  water  once.  The  peculiar  aroma  given  out 
by  cabbage  when  cooking  is  thought  to  depend  some- 
what on  the  manner  in  which  it  is  grown  ;  those  having 
been  raised  with  the  least  rank  manure  having  the  least. 
I  think  this  one  of  the  whims  of  the  community. 

To  Pickle,  select  hard  heads,  quarter  them,  soak  in 
salt  and  water  four  or  five  days,  then  drain  and  treat  as 
for  other  pickles,  with  vinegar  spiced  to  suit. 

For  Cold  Slaiv,  select  hard  heads,  halve  and  then 
slice  up  these  halves  exceedingly  fine.  Lay  these  in  a 
deep  dish,  and  pour  over  vinegar  that  has  been  raised 
to  the  boiling  point  in  which  has  been  mixed  a  little 
pepper  and  salt. 

Sour  Krout.  Take  large,  hard  headed  drumheads, 
halve  and  cut  very  fine,  then  pack  in  a  clean,  tight  bar- 
rel, beginning  with  a  sprinkling  of  salt  and  following 
with  a  layer  of  cabbage,  and  thus  alternating  until  the 


64       CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC. 

barrel  is  filled.  Now  compact  the  mass  as  much  as 
possible  by  pounding,  after  which  put  on  a  well  fitting- 
cover  resting  on  the  cabbage,  and  lay  heavy  weights  or 
a  stone  on  this.  When  fermented  it  is  ready  for  use. 
To  prepare  for  the  table  fry  in  butter  or  fat. 

The  outer  green  leaves  of  cabbages  are  sometimes 
used  to  line  a  brass  or  copper  kettle  in  which  pickles  are 
made,  in  the  belief  that  the  vinegar  extracts  the  color- 
ing substance  (chlorophyl)  in  the  leaves,  and  the  cucum- 
bers absorbing  this  acquire  a  rich  green  color.  Be  not 
deceived  by  this  transparent  cheat,  0  simple  housewife  ! 
the  coloring  matter  comes  almost  wholly  from  the  copper 
or  brass  behind  those  leaves  ;  and,  instead  of  an  inno 
cent  vegetable  pigment,  your  green  cucumbers  are  dyed 
with  the  poisonous  carbonate  of  copper. 

CABBAGES  UNDER  GLASS. 

The  very  early  cabbages  usually  bringing  very  high 
prices,  the  enterprising  market  gardener  either  winters 
young  plants  under  glass  or  starts  them  there,  planting 
the  seed  under  its  protecting  shelter  long  before  the  cold 
of  Winter  is  passed.  When  the  design  is  to  winter  over 
Fall  grown  plants,  the  seed  are  planted  in  the  open 
ground  about  the  middle  of  September  and  at  about  the 
last  of  October  they  arc  ready  to  go  into  the  cold  frames, 
as  such  are  called  that  depend  wholly  on  the  sun  for 
heat.  Select  those  having  short  stumps  and  transplant- 
into  the  frames,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  by  two  inches 
apart,  shading  them  with  a  straw  mat  or  the  like  for  a 
few  days,  after  which  let  them  remain  without  any  glass 
over  them  until  the  frost  is  severe  enough  to  begin  to 
freeze  the  ground,  then  place  over  the  sashes,  but  bear  in 
mind  that  the  object  is  not  to  promote  growth, -but  as 
nearly  as  possible  to  keep  them  in  a  dormant  state,  to 


CABBAGES,    HOW    TO    GROW   THEM,    ETC.  65 

keep  them  so  cold  that  they  will  not  grow,  and  just  suf- 
ficiently protected  to  prevent  injury  from  freezing.  With 
this  object  in  view  the  sashes  must  be  raised  whenever 
the  temperature  is  above  freezing,  and  this  process  will 
so  harden  the  plants  that  they  will  receive  no  serious  in- 
jury though  the  ground  under  the  sash  should  freeze  two 
inches  deep  ;  cabbage  plants  will  stand  a  temperature  of 
fifteen  to  twenty  degrees  below  the  freezing  point.  A 
covering  of  snow  on  the  sash  will  do  no  harm,  if  it  does 
not  last  longer  than  a  week  or  ten  days,  in  which  case  it 
must  be  removed.  There  is  some  clanger  to  be  feared 
from  ground  mice,  who,  when  everything  else  is  locked 
up  by  the  frost  will  instinctively  take  to  the  sash,  and 
there  cause  much  destruction  among  the  plants  unless 
these  are  occasionally  examined.  "When  March  opens 
remove  the  sash  when  the  temperature  will  allow,  re- 
placing it  when  the  weather  is  unseasonably  cold,  par- 
ticularly at  night.  The  plants  may  be  brought  still 
farther  forward  by  transferring  them  from  the  hot  bed 
when  two  or  three  inches  high  to  cold  frames,  having 
first  somewhat  hardened  them.  When  so  transferred 
plant  them  about  an  inch  apart,  and  shield  from  the  sun 
for  two  or  three  days.  After  this  they  may  be  treated 
as  in  cold  frames.  The  transfer  tends  to  keep  their 
stock,  increases  the  fibrous  roots  and  makes  the  plants 
hardier.  As  the  month  advances  it  may  be  left  entirely 
off,  and  about  the  first  of  April  the  plants  may  be  set 
out  in  the  open  field,  pressing  fine  earth  firmly  about 
the  roots. 

When  cabbages  are  raised  in  hot  beds  the  seed  in  the 
latitude  of  Boston  should  be  planted  the  first  of  March; 
in  that  of  New  York  about  a  fortnight  earlier.  When 
two  or  three  inches  high,  which  will  be  in  three  or  four 


60     CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC. 

weeks,  they  should  be  thinned  to  about  four  or  less  to  an 
inch  in  the  row.  They  should  now  be  well  hardened  by 
partly  drawing  off  the  sashes  in  the  warm  part  of  the 
day,  and  covering  at  night ;  as  the  season  advances  re- 
move the  sashes  entirely  by  day,  covering  only  at  night. 
By  about  the  middle  of  April  the  plants  will  be  ready 
for  the  open  ground. 

When  raised  in  cold  frames  in  the  Spring,  the  seed 
should  be  planted  about  the  first  of  April,  mats  being 
used  to  retain  by  night  the  solar  heat  accumulated  dur- 
ing the  day.  As  the  season  advances  the  same  process 
of  hardening  will  be  necessary  as  with  those  raised  in 
hot  beds. 

COLD  FRAME  AXD  HOT  BED. 

To  carry  on  hot  beds  on  a  large  scale  successfully  is 
almost  an  art  in  itself — and  for  fuller  details  I  will  refer 
my  readers  to  works  on  gardening.  Early  plants  in  a 
small  way  may  be  raised  in  flower  pots  or  boxes  in  a 
warm  kitchen  window.  It  is  best  if  practicable,  to  have 
but  one  plant  in  each  pot  that  they  may  grow  short  and 
stocky.  If  the  seed  are  not  planted  earlier  than  April 
for  out  of  door  cultivation  a  cold  frame  will  answer. 

For  a  Cold  Frame  select  the  locality  in  the  Fall; 
choosing  a  warm  location  on  a  southern  slope,  protected 
by  a  fence  or  building  on  the  north  and  northwest.  Set 
posts  in  the  ground,  nail  two  boards  to  these  parallel  to 
each  other,  one  about  a  foot  in  height,  and  the  other 
towards  the  south  about  four  inches  narrower  ;  this  will 
give  the  sashes  resting  on  them  the  right  slope  to  shed 
the  rain  and  receive  as  much  heat  as  possible  from  the 
sun.  Have  these  boards  at  a  distance  apart  equal  to 
the  length  of  the  sash,  which  iday  be  any  common  win- 
dow sash  for  a  small  bed,  while  three  and  a  half  feet  is 


CABBAGES,   HOW   TO    GROW   THEM,   ETC.  67 

the  length  of  a  common  gardener's  sash.  If  common 
window  sash  is  used  cut  channels  in  the  cross  bars  to  let 
the  water  run  off.  Dig  the  ground  thoroughly  (it  is  best 
to  cover  it  in  the  Fall  with  litter  to  keep  the  frost  out) 
and  rake  out  all  stones  or  clods  ;  then  slide  in  the  sash 
and  let  it  remain  closed  three  or  four  days  that  the  soil 
may  be  warmed  by  the  sun's  rays.  The  two  end  boards 
and  the  bottom  board  should  rise  as  high  as  the  sash  to 
prevent  the  heat  escaping,  and  the  bottom  board  of  a 
small  frame  should  have  a  strip  nailed  inside  to  rest  the 
sash  on.  Next  rake  in  thoroughly  guano  or  phosphate 
or  finely  pulverized  hen  manure,  and  plant  in  rows  four 
to  six  inches  apart.  As  the  season  advances  raise  the 
sashes  an  inch  or  two  in  the  middle  of  the  day  and  wa- 
ter freely  at  evening  with  water  that  is  nearly  of  the 
temperature  of  the  earth  in  the  frame.  As  the  heat  of 
the  season  increases  whitewash  the  glass  and  keep  them 
more  and  more  open  until  just  before  the  plants  are  set 
in  open  ground,  then  allow  the  glass  to  remain  entirely 
off  both  day  and  night  unless  there  should  be  a  cold  rain. 
This  will  harden  them  so  that  they  will  not  be  apt  to  be 
injured  by  the  cabbage  beetle,  as  well  as  chilled  and  put 
back  by  the  change.  Should  the  plants  be  getting  tco 
large  before  the  season  for  transplanting,  they  should  be 
checked  by  drawing  a  sharp  knife  within  a  couple  of 
inches  of  the  stalk.  If  it  is  desirable  to  check  their 
growth  or  harden  them,  transplant  into  another  cold 
frame,  allowing  each  plant  double  the  distance  it  before 
occupied. 

The  structure  and  management  of  a  Hot  Bed  is  much 
the  same  as  that  of  a  Cold  Frame,  with  the  exception 
that  the  sashes  are  usually  longer  and  the  back  and 
front  somewhat  higher ;  being  started  earlier  the  requi- 


68        CABBAGES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC. 

site  temperature  lias  to  be  kept  up  by  artificial  meaiss, 
fermenting  manure  peing  relied  upon  for  the  purpose, 
and  the  loss  of  this  heat  has  to  be  checked  more  care- 
fully by  straw  matting,  and  in  the  far  North  by  shutters 
also.  In  constructing  it  horse  manure  with  plenty  of 
litter  and  about  a  quarter  its  bulk  in  leaves,  if  attaina- 
ble, all  having  been  well  mixed  together,  is  thrown  into 
a  pile,  and  left  for  a  few  days  until  steam  escapes,  when 
the  mass  is  again  thrown  over  and  left  for  two  or  three 
days  more,  after  which  it  is  thrown  into  the  pit  (or  it 
may  be  placed  directly  on  the  surface)  which  is  lined 
with  boards,  from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  in  depth, 
when  it  is  beaten  down  with  a  fork  and  trodden  well  to- 
gether. The  sashes  are  now  put  on  and  kept  there  until 
heat  is  developed.  The  first  intense  heat  must  be  al- 
lowed to  pass  off,  which  will  be  in  about  three  days  after 
the  high  temperature  is  reached.  Now  throw  on  six  or 
eight  inches  of  fine  soil  in  which  mix  well  rotted  ma- 
nure free  from  all  straw,  or  rake  in  thoroughly  Super- 
phosphate or  Guano,  at  the  rate  of  two  thousand  pounds 
to  the  acre  and  plant  the  seed  as  in  Cold  Frame.  Hard- 
en the  plants  as  directed  in  preceding  paragraph. 

CAULIFLOWER,     BROCCOLI,    BRUSSELS  SPROUTS, 
KALE,  AXD  SEA  KALE. 

My  treatise  on  'the  cabbage  would  hardly  be  complete 
without  some  allusion  to  such  prominent  members  of 
the  Brassica  family  as  the  cauliflower,  broccoli,  brussels 
sprouts,  and  kale.  These  in  the  selection  and  prepara- 
tion of  the  soil,  manure,  and  cultivation  require  for  the 
most  part  the  same  treatment  as  cabbage.  In  Europe 
there  has  been  far  more  progress  made  in  the  cultiva- 
tion and  use  of  these  vegetables  than  with  us  in  Ameri- 


CABBAGES,    HOW  TO    GROW   THEM,    ETC.  69 

ca ;  and  I  am  indebted  to  the  work  of  Mcintosh  for 
maii)r  of  my  ideas  in  this  section.  The  Broccoli  are 
closely  allied  to  the  cauliflower,  the  white  varieties  bear- 
ing so  close  a  resemblance  that  one  of  them,  the  Wal- 
cheren,  is  by  some  classed  indiscriminately  with  each. 
The  chief  distinction  between  the  two  is  in  hardiness, 
the  broccoli  being  much  the  hardier. 

The  Cauliflower  require  the  same  distance  apart 
in  the  rows  and  between  the  plants  as  cabbage,  the  early 
and  late  varieties  corresponding  in  this  respect  with  the 
early  and  late  varieties  of  cabbage.  To  perfect  them  the 
very  highest  cultivation  possible  is  required  ;  give  them 
strong,  deep  soil,  very  thoroughly  worked  ;  use  liquid 
manure  freely  and  water  abundantly.  A  fine  caulinower 
is  the  pet  achievement  of  the  market  gardener.  The 
great  aim  is  not  to  produce  size  only,  "  but  the  fine, 
white,  creamy  color,  compactness,  and  what  is  techni- 
cally called  curdy  appearance,  from  its  resemblance  to 
the  curd  of  milk  in  its  preparation  for  cheese.  When 
the  flower  begins  to  open,  or  when  it  is  of  a  warty  or 
frost-like  appearance,  it  is  less  esteemed.  It  should  not 
be  cut  in  summer  above  a  day  before  it  is  used."  The 
cauliflower  is'  served  with  milk  and  butter,  or  it  may  be- 
come a  component  of  soups,  or  be  used  as  a  pickle. 
Many  of. the  varieties  given  in  catalogues  are  but  syno- 
nyms of,  and  very  closely  resemble  each  other.  Among 
the  most  desirable  for  cultivation  are  Extra  Early  Er- 
furt, Half  Early  Paris  or  Demi  Dur,  (this  is  the  kind 
usually  sold  in  this  country  as  Early  Paris,  the  true  va- 
riety making  so  small  a  head  as  to  be  comparatively 
worthless  here)  Walcherex,   Large  Asiatic,.  Nonpa- 

REIL,    LeNORMAXD. 


70  CABBAGES,    HOW   TO    GROW   THEM,   ETC. 

The  leaves  of  the  Extra  Early  Erfurt  growing  close 
to  the  head  permit  its  being  planted  nearer  than  any 
other  early  sort.  I  have  grown  this  variety  with  heads 
fifteen  inches  in  diameter. 

Of  Broccoli  over  forty  varieties  are  named  in  foreign 
catalogues,  of  which  Walcheren  is  one  of  the  very  best. 
Knight's  Protecting  is  an  exceedingly  hardy  dwarf 
sort.  As  a  rule  the  white  varieties  are  preferred  to  the 
purple  kinds.     Plant  and  treat  as  cauliflower. 

Of  Brussels  Sprouts  (or  bud-bearing  cabbage) 
there  are  but  two  varieties,  the  dwarf  and  the  tall ;  the 
tall  kind  produces  more  buds,  while  the  dwarf  is  the 
hardier.  The  "  sprouts"  form  on  the  stalks,  and  are 
miniature  heads  of  cabbage  from  the  size  of  a  pea  to 
that  of  a  pigeon's  egg.  They  are  raised  to  but  a  limited 
extent  in  this  country,  but  in  Europe  they  are  grown  on 
a  large  scale.  The  sprouts  may  be  cooked^  and  served 
like  cabbage,  though  oftentimes  they  are  treated  more 
as  a  delicacy  and  served  with  butter  or  some  rich  sauce. 
The  Feather  Stem  Savoy  and  Dalmeny  Sprouts  are 
considered  as  hybrids,  the  one  between  the  brussels 
sprouts  and  Savoy,  the  other  between  it  and  Drumhead 
Savoy.  The  soil  for  brussels  sprouts  should  not  be  so 
rich  as  for  cabbage,  as  the  object  is  to  grow  them  small 
and  solid.  Give  the  same  distance  apart  as  for  early 
cabbage,  and  the  same  manner  of  cultivation.  Break 
off  the  leaves  at  the  sides  a  few  at  a  time  when  the 
sprouts  begin  to  form  and  when  they  are  ready  to  use 
cut  them  off  with  a  sharp  knife. 

Kale.  Sea  kale  or  sea  cabbage  is  a  native  of  the  sea 
coast  of  England,  growing  in  the  sand  and  pebbles  of 
the  sea  shore.     It  is  a  perennial,  perfectly  hardy,  with- 


ETC.  |  I 

standing  the  coldest  winters  of  New  England.  The 
blossoms,  though  bearing  a  general  resemblance  to  those 
of  other  members  of  the  cabbage  family,  are  yet  quite 
unique  in  appearance,  and  I  think  worthy  of  a  place  in 
the  flower  garden.  It  is  propagated  both  .by  seed  and 
by  cuttings  of  the  roots,  having  the  rows  three  feet 
apart,  and  the  plants  three  feet  apart  in  the  rows.  It  is 
difficult  to  get  the  seeds  to  vegetate.  Plant  seed  in 
April  and  May.  The  ground  should  be  richly  manured 
and  deeply  and  thoroughly  worked.  It  is  blanched  be- 
fore using.  In  cooking  it  requires  to  be  very  thorough- 
ly boiled,  after  which  it  is  served  up  in  melted  butter 
and  toasted  bread.  The  sea  kale  is  highly  prized  in 
England,  but  thus  far  its  cultivation  in  this  country  has 
been  very  limited. 

The  Borecole  or  common  kale  is  of  the  cabbage 
family,  but  is  characterized  by  not  heading  like  the  cab- 
bage or  producing  eatable  flowers  like  the  cauliflower 
and  broccoli.  The  varieties  are  very  numerous,  some 
of  them  growing  very  large  and  coarse,  suitable  only  as 
food  for  stock  ;  others  are  exceedingly  finely  curled,  and 
excellent  for  table  use  ;  while  others  in  their  color  and 
structure  are  highly  ornamental.  They  are  annual,  bi- 
ennial, and  perennial.  They  do  not  require  so  strong  a 
soil  or  such  high  manuring  as  other  varieties  of  the  cab- 
bage family. 

The  varieties  are.  almost  endless  :  some  of  the  best  in 
cultivation  for  table  use  are  Dwarf  Green  (Hjrled  or 
German  Greens.  Tale  Green  Curled.  Purple  Bore- 
cole, and  the  variegated  kales.  The  crown  of  the  plant 
is  used  as  greens,  or  as  an  ingredient  in  soups.  The 
kales  are  very  liardy,  and  the  dwarf  varieties  with  but 
little  protection  can  be  kept  in  the  North    well    into  the 


VI  CABBAGES,    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM,    PTC. 

Winter  in  the  open   ground.      Plant   and  cultivate  like 
Savoy  cabbage. 

Tlic  variegated  sorts  with  their  fine  curled  leaves  of 
a  rich  purple,  green,  red,  white,  or  yellow  color,  are  very 
pleasing  in  their  effects,  and  form  a  striking  and  attrac- 
tive feature  when  planted  in  clumps  in  the  flower  garden- 
particularly  is  this  so  because  their  extreme  hardiness 
leaves  them  in  full  vigor  after  the  cold  has  destroyed 
all  other  plants, —  some  of  the  richest  colors  are  devel- 
oped along  the  veins  of  the  uppermost  leaves  after  the 
plant  has  nearly  finished  its  growth  for  the  season.  The 
Jersey  Cow  Kale  grows  to  from  three  to  six  feet  in 
height  and  yields  a  great  body  of  green  food  for  stock  ; 
have  the  rows  about  three  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  two 
to  three  feet  distant  in  the  rows.  In  several  instances 
my  customers  have  written  me  that  this  kale  raised  for 
stock  feed  lias  given  them  great  satisfaction. 

The  Thousand  Headed  Kale  is  a  tali  variety   send 
ing  out  numerous  side  shoots,  whence  the  name. 


ONION    RAISING; 


WHAT  KINDS  TO  RAISE, 


THE     WAY    TO   RAISE    THEM 

EIGHTEENTH    EDITION    (REVISED). 


JAMES  J.  H.  GREGORY, 

SEED       GROWER,     MARBLEHEAD,     MASS. 


MARBLEHEAD  : 

MESSENGER   STEAM   PRINTING-HOUSE. 
l382. 


Entered  according  i  >  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1864, 
By    JAMES    J.   H.   GREGORY, 
llic  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District    Court,  District  of  Massachusetts. 


ONION    RAISING 


WHY     I     WRITE     THIS     TREATISE. 

In  common  with  my  fellow-seedsmen  I  frequently  receive 
letters  from  my  farmer  friends,  in  different  parts  of  the  United 
States,  asking  for  information  on  Onion  Raising.  It  is  im- 
possible in  a  letter  sheet  to  give  sufficient  minuteness  of  de- 
tail ;  I  therefore  send  out  this  little  treatise,  in  which  T  have 
endeavored  to  cover  very  minutely  the  whole  ground  of  in- 
quiry.    I  trust  that  it  will  prove  acceptable. 

SELECTING     THE     SOIL. 

Onions  are  an  exception  to  the  general  rule, — they  thrive 
best  on  old  ground,  with  the  exception  of  an  increased  liabil- 
ity to  injury  from  rust  or  smut.  I  recently  examined  an  acre 
of  land  which  had  been  planted  continuously  with  onions  for 
three  generations  without  perceptible  decrease  in  the  quantity 
or  quality  of  the  crop. 

Onions  are  sometimes  successfully  raised  by  plowing  up  old 
pasture  land  in  September,  thoroughly  harrowing  it  before 
frost  sets  in,  and  in  the  spring  working  in  fine  manure  very 
thoroughly  with  the  harrow  and  cultivator.  The  result  of 
such  planting  is  to  get  a  crop  very  free  from  weeds,  with 
onions  usually  coarse,  and  more  or  less  of  scallions. 

(3) 


Onions  can  be  raised  on  a  variety  of  soils,  but  yield  the 
most  satisfactory  returns  on  a  sandy  loam,  a  gravelly  soil,  or, 
to  state  a  general  rule,  on  those  soils  which  are  light  in  struc- 
ture. As  onions  are  brought  on  the  heavier  soils,  the  first  ef- 
fect  will  be  a  deterioration  in  their  appearance,  the  outer  skin 
of  the  yellow  varieties,  losing  its  fine,  clear,  translucent  yellow, 
and  becoming  thicker,  duller,  and  less  attractive  in  appear- 
ance. If  planted  on  a  wet  or  very  heavy  soil,  the  crop  will 
mature  late,  if  it  matures  at  all,  giving  a  large  proportion  of 
that  dread  of  the  onion  grower,  scallions,  or  "scullions"  as 
farmers  term  them,  meaning  those  whose  growth  runs  mostly 
to  the  neck,  forming  little  or  no  bulb  or  bottom.  With  plenty 
of  manure  onions  will  thrive  well  on  soil  that  is  very  gravelly. 
1  have  seen  very  large  crops  grown  on  Marblehead  Neck,  on 
land  so  stony,  that,  after  a  rain,  on  an  area  of  many  square 
yards  not  a  particle  of  soil  could  be  seen,  nothing  but  small 
angular  fragments  of  porphyry,  with  thrifty  onions  springing 
as  it  were  out  of  the  very  rocks.  Let  it  be  understood,  how- 
ever, that  this  soil  was  not  of  a  leachy  nature,  but  rested  on  a 
hard-pan  bottom.  The  area  of  land  selected  should  be  free 
of  all  large  stones,  as  such  interfere  seriously  with  the  straight- 
ness  of  the  rows,  the  planting,  hoeing  and  general  cultivation 
of  so  small-sized  a  product.  Ultimately,  good  cultivators 
clear  their  onion  grounds  of  large  loose  rocks  by  blasting  or 
sinking  them  ;  obviously,  the  sooner  this  is  done,  the  larger 
are  the  returns  received  from  such  judicious  investments.  The 
land  should  be  laid  out  in  as  nearly  a  square  as  practicable. 
as  this  facilitates  estimates  of  manure,  seed,  and  crops,  gives 
greater  regularity  to  the  work,  and  economizes  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  a  crop  which  requires  a  great  deal  of  passing  over. 
To  protect  the  crop  from  the  washing  of  heavy  showers,  the 
land  should  be  level  or  very   nearly   so,   otherwise   a  rush   of 


water  will  bare  the  roots  of  some,  and  heap  the  earth  around 
the  necks  of  others,  to  the  injury  of  each. 

PREPARING     THE     SOIL. 

Don't  plant  a  weedy  soil  to  onions,  or  land  which  abounds 
in  witch,  or  couch  grass ;  if  you  do,  you  will  repent  it  on 
your  hands  and  knees  all  summer  long,  for  such  soil  will  usu- 
ally require  two  more  weedings  than  that  on  which  weeds 
have  not  been  allowed  to  ripen  their  seed.  To  have  to  keep 
down  witch  grass  with  your  fingers  in  an  onion  bed  is  a  mis- 
erable business,  tearing  up  the  onions  and  your  patience  at 
the  same  time  ;  better  delay  a  year,  and  meanwhile  clear  the 
land  thoroughly  by  a  diligent  use  of  the  cultivator  and  hoe, 
finishing  in  the  fall  by  throwing  the  land  into  ridges  that  the 
freezings  and  thawings  of  winter  may  act  destructively  on  the 
roots  of  the  witch  grass.  Should  any  scattered  shoot  of  this 
grass  show  itself  in  the  spring,  let  the  roots  be  carefully  re- 
moved with  a  fork  or  spade  before  the  land  is  plowed. 

When  onions  are  planted  on  land  full  of  the  seed  of  weeds 
it  is  well,  if  the  season  is  an  early  one,  to  give  sufficient  time 
for  the  first  crop  of  weed  seed  to  start  before  planting  the  on- 
ions. 

In  the  Eastern  States  it  is  found,  as  a  general  rule,  that  suc- 
cess with  the  first  crop  of  onions  is  affected  by  the  crop  which 
grew  in  the  land  the  previous  year,  and  that  onions  will  follow 
carrots  better  than  any  other  crop  ;  next  to  carrots,  corn  and 
potatoes  are  ranked  as  good  preparers  of  the  ground,  while  to 
succeed  well  with  onions  where  cabbage  or  beets  were  raised 
the  previous  year  is  comparatively  rare.  Were  there  no  other 
reason,  die  clean  tilth  which  carrots  insure  makes  it  an  excel- 
lent crop  to  precede  onions.  In  the  fertile  lands  of  the  west, 
the  method  of  procedure  is  briefly  this  :   Land  on  which  grows 


the  bush-hazel  is  selected,  if  accessible,  the  bushes  cut  down 
and  the  turf  surface  but  little  more  than  pared  in  spring  with 
the  plow.  In  this  condition  it  is  usually  allowed  to  remain  a 
season,  exposed  to  the  drying  effects  of  the  sun,  when  it  is 
most  thoroughly  harrowed  and  raked,  and  all  the  numerous 
roots  and  waste  are  burnt,  the  land  plowed  to  a  moderate 
depth,  and  the  seed  sown  either  broadcast  or  in  drills. 
Should  the  early  part  of  the  season  prove  very  wet,  the  crop 
sowed  broadcast  is  at  times  smothered  under  a  rapid  growth 
of  weeds,  while  with  a  favoring  season  as  high  as  800  bushels 
to  the  acre  have  been  harvested. 

After  the  harvesting  of  the  crop  which  is  to  precede  onions, 
let  the  land  have  a  fall  plowing,  and  be  thrown  up  into  ridges, 
which  will  not  only  help  destroy  noxious  weeds  and  witch 
grass  as  above  stated,  but  will  leave  the  land  light,  in  a  con- 
dition to  be  worked  successfully  early  in  the  spring — a  great 
desideratum  for  a  crop  that  usually  requires  the  entire  season 
to  mature  it. 

THE     MANURE. 

Onions  require  the  very  best  of  manure,  in  the  most  tempt- 
ing condition,  and  plenty  of  it  at  that.  Peruvian  guano,  fish 
guano,  pig  manure,  barn  manure,  night-soil,  kelp,  muscle 
mud,  superphosphate  of  lime,  wood  ashes,  and  muck  are, 
either  alone  or  in  compost,  all  excellent  food  for  the  onion. 
( )ld  ground,  to  maintain  it  in  first-rate  condition,  should  re- 
reive  from  six  to  eight  cords  of  manure  to  the  acre;  while 
new  onion  ground,  to  get  it  in  first-rate  condition,  should  re- 
reive  from  eight  to  ten  cords  of  manure.  When  Peruvian 
guano  was  held  at  about  sixty  dollars  per  ton,  experienced 
farmers  believed  that  no  purchased  manure  paid  as  well  as 
this  on  old  beds,  provided  two  applications  were  made,  one 


of  about  500  lbs.  to  the  acre,  to  be  raked  in  at  the  time  of 
planting,  and  the  other  of  like  amount  to  be  applied  broad- 
cast when  the  onions  were  about  half  grown.  Those  who 
used  but  one  application  at  the  time  of  sowing  were  apt  to 
see  surprising  effects  in  a  fine  growth  up  to  the  period  of  half 
maturity  of  the  crop,  and  an  equally  surprisingly  effect  in  but 
little  growth  from  this  time  through  the  remainder  of  the 
season.  Those  who  have  used  guano  freely  on  their  onion 
lands  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia  assert  that  one  singular 
result  is,  that,  after  applying  it  for  three  years  in  succession, 
the  seed  onions  for  the  most  part  fail  to  sprout  in  such  soil, 
and  when  seed  is  planted  it  makes  but  little  growth  after 
vegetating.  As  far  as  I  have  observed,  superphosphate  of 
lime  used  as  a  manure  for  a  series  of  years  is  apt  to  give  the 
first  of  these  results.  Pig  manure  is  held  in  high  esteem  by 
many  successful  growers  of  onions  in  southern  New  England. 
Fish  guano  applied  at  the  rate  of  a  ton  to  the  acre  has  given 
very  fine  crops. 

In  the  vicinity  of  large  towns,  where  night-soil  can  be 
readily  obtained,  no  more  efficient  manure  can  be  applied 
than  a  compost  of  this  and  muck  that  has  been  exposed 
to  a  winter's  frost,  or  good  loam,  in  the  proportion  of 
three  parts  muck  or  loam  to  one  part  night-soil.  If  with 
this  compost  barn  manure  and  sea  manure  are  mixed,  so 
much  the  better ;  for  it  is  a  rule  for  this  as  for  other  crops 
that  a  combination  of  manures  in  an  arithmetical  ratio  will 
produce  results  approaching  a  geometrical  ratio.  To  make  a 
compost  of  loam  or  muck  and  night-soil,  select  a  spot  very 
near  the  piece  to  be  planted,  and  cover  the  ground  with 
either  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  or  eighteen  inches  ;  then  raise  a 
bank  of  the  same  material  surrounding  this  floor  to  the  height 
of  three  or  four  feet,  with  a  thickness  of  from  four  to  six  feet. 


8 


The  carts  containing  night-soil  are  backed  up  against  this  re- 
ceptacle, and  the  door  being  unscrewed,  the  contents  shoot 
out.  If  barn  manure  is  used,  it  usually  forms  part  of  the  sides 
of  the  receptacle.  During  the  winter  the  frosts  act  on  the 
heap  to  the  further  sweetness  and  disintegrating  of  it,  and  to- 
wards spring  the  mass  is  pitched  most  thoroughly  over,  being 
mixed  and  made  as  fine  as  possible, — sand  when  obtainable 
having  been  either  previously,  or  being  subsequently  liberally 
mixed  with  it,  which  so  "cuts"  or  sq^arates  it  that  it  remains 
light  and  fine.  After  an  interval  of  about  a  fortnight,  allow- 
ing time  for  fermentation,  the  heap  is  again  pitched  over  for 
fining  and  mixing,  and,  occasionally,  three  mixings  are  made. 
It  would  be  well  for  tourists  to  avoid  the  onion  districts  at  this 
season  of  the  year,  as  a  little  experience  will  amply  satisfy 
them. 

These  composts  should  not  be  made  on  the  ground  where 
the  onions  are  to  be  planted,  for  neither  onions  nor  any  oth- 
er crop  will  grow  on  such  spots  the  same  season. 

Where  superphosphate  of  lime  is  used,  it  is  best  to  make 
two  applications,  as  with  guano.  The  results  of  the  use  of 
superphosphates  are  not  always  satisfactory,  but  I  have  seen 
eight  hundred  pounds  applied  to  the  acre  produce  as  good 
results  as  seven  cords  of  rich  compost  applied  side  by  side. 

Muscle  mud  obtained  from  the  sea-coast  is  rarely  used 
alone,  though  large  crops  are  sometimes  raised  on  old  onion 
ground  by  the  application  of  this  alone,  at  the  rate  of  eight 
cords  to  the  acre.  It  appears  to  give  the  best  results  a  few 
miles  inland.  The  strength  and  consequent  value  of  this  ma- 
nure varies  considerably ;  and  here  let  me  add  that  the  value 
of  all  animal  manures  will  be  found  to  vary  greatly ;  other 
things  being  equal,  the  higher  feeding  the  animal  receives,  the 
better  the  manure. 


Wood  ashes  are  generally  used  in  connection  with  other  ma- 
nures at  the  rate  of  about  200  bushels  to  the  acre.  Wood 
ashes  should  never  be  combined  with  other  manures,  as  it  will 
set  the  ammonia  free,  and  thus  deteriorate  their  quality.  Use 
ashes  either  by  scattering  it  on  the  surface  at  the  time  of  plant- 
ing, or  when  the  crop  is  about  half  grown. 

In  the  vicinity  of  large  towns,  of  all  manures  obtained  out- 
side the  barnyard,  night-soil  is  the  cheapest.  The  first  farmer 
who  used  it  in  this  locality,  comparatively  but  a  few  years 
ago,  was  universally  jeered  at  by  his  comrades,  but  now  near- 
ly all  of  our  annual  crop  of  50,000  bushels  is  fed  principally 
on  this  manure. 

The  effect  of  kelp,  (by  this  I  mean  the  sea-manure  which 
is  thrown  up  by  the  storms  on  very  bold  shores,) when  used 
as  the  principal  manure,  is  to  give  a  coarse  onion,  and  a  late 
crop  ;  so  late  as  oftentimes  to  be  in  quite  a  green  state  at  the 
close  of  the  season,  requiring  extra  labor  and  care  to  get  it 
in  market  condition.  In  seasons  of  great  drought,  however, 
kelp  serves  an  excellent  end,  in  so  retarding  the  crop  that  it 
is  not  prematurely  ripened.  In  the  excessively  dry  season  of 
1864,  crops  along  the  sea-coast  manured  with  kelp,  in  many 
instances  yielded  double  those  manured  with  barnyard  and 
other  manures. 

The  manure  is  managed  most  conveniently  by  dropping  it 
on  the  land  in  quite  small  heaps,  at  regular  intervals,  at  con- 
venient distance  for  spreading.  I  close  this  paragraph  on  ma- 
nures by  emphasizing  the  utility  of  a  thorough  fining  of  if. 

PLOWING. 

The  farmer  who  brings  up  the  sub-soil  on  his  onion  bed, 
will  find  he  has  made  a  mistake.     Onions  do  not  require  deep 


TO 


plowing ;  four  or  five  inches  is  sufficient  depth  to  insure  a 
good  crop.  One  of  the  finest  pieces  I  ever  saw  was 
managed  by  carting  on  the  manure  in  the  fall,  and  simply 
giving  it  a  thorough  working  into  the  soil  with  an  ordinary 
one-horse  cultivator  in  the  spring,  after  which  the  land  was 
raked  and  planted,  no  plow  or  any  implement  other  than  the 
cultivator  having  been  used.  In  this  instance  the  soil  was 
naturally  quite  light.  In  the  west,  the  ground  having  been 
plowed  in  the  fall,  it  frequently  receives  only  a  cultivating  or 
harrowing  in  the  spring. 

As  the  great  object  is  to  get  the  land  in  a  thoroughly  fine 
condition,  to  facilitate  the  covering  of  the  seed  with  fine  earth, 
to  leave  the  soil  light  that  there  may  be  a  vigorous  growth  of 
the  plants,  and  to  leave  the  land  in  good  working  condition 
for  after  culture,  no  labor  should  1  e  spared  to  attain  this  end. 
On  most  soils  the  ground  should  1  e  plowed,  cross-plowed,  and 
thoroughly  cultivated.  If,  from  the  backwardness  of  tire 
spring  and  the  consequent  wet  state  of  the  land,  the  soil  should 
still  be  lumpy,  it  should  be  thoroughly  rolled  before  raking  for 
planting,  and  it  may  be  well  to  brush-harrow  it.  As  onions 
grown  from  the  seed  usually  require  the  whole  season  to 
ripen,  the  onion  grower  breaks  ground  first  of  all  in  his  onion 
bed,  springing  to  this  as  early  in  the  season  as  is  possible  to 
work  the  land  into  a  light  and  fine  condition. 

THE     SEED. 

In  some  localities  three  pounds  of  seed  was  thought  suffi- 
cient to  an  acre  ;  afterward  this  was  increased  to  three  and  a 
half,  and  then  to  four  ;  and  now,  when  raised  for  tracing,  five 
and  six  pounds  are  sometimes  planted.  As  a  general  rule, 
three  and  one-half  pounds  will  be  found  sufficient  for  an  acre  ; 
and  when  land  is  very  heavily  manured,  four  pounds  may  be 


planted  with  profit.  Land  that  is  planted  to  onions  the  first 
time  requires  more  seed  than  old  land.  If  it  is  designed  to 
pull  the  onions  when  small  for  bunching  for  the  early  market, 
then  seven  or  eight  pounds  of  seed  will  be  required  for  an  acre. 
If  the  intent  is  to  raise  the  very  smallonions  known  as  "setts," 
which  are  stored  over  winter  to  be  planted  in  the  spring  to 
produce  early  onions,  than  a  much  larger  quantity  will  be 
required.  On  old  beds  where  rust  abounds,  I  have  known 
sixteen  pounds  of  seed  sown  to  the  acre.  Of  course  it  is  of 
the  first  importance  that  the  seed  should  be  reliable. 

Compared  with  the  average  return  of  the  crop,  the  cost  of 
good  seed  for  planting  an  acre  of  land  to  onions,  even  at  the 
highest  prices,  is  not  to  be  considered  a  moment  beside  the 
acceptance  of  doubtful  seed  even  as  a  gift;  yet  every  onion- 
growing  community  has  had  its  stories  to  tell  of  cultivators 
who  have  thrown  away  their  time,  labor  and  manure,  by  pur- 
chasing doubtful  seed  at  a  little  lower  figure  than  that  at 
which  reliable  seed  could  be  procured.  New  seed  will  some- 
times fail  to  vegetate  if  planted  a  little  too  deep,  or  if  snow 
falls  and  remains  on  the  ground  after  planting,  or  a  rain  falls 
after  raking  and  just  before  planting,  though  part  of  the  same 
piece  planted  but  an  hour  before  may  come  finely. 

The  usual  test  for  good  seed,  that  is,  seed  that  will  vege- 
tate, is  the  sinking  of  it ;  that  which  will  sink  being  consid- 
ered reliable,  and  that  which  floats  being  considered  worth- 
less. This  will  answer  as  a  general  rule,  but  it  is  not  wholly 
reliable.  Seed  that  will  sink  will  not  always  vegetate,  while 
seed  that  will  float,  under  some  circumstances,  will  vege- 
tate. Any  farmer  who  tests  his  seed  by  the  sinking  process 
will  find  that  some  of  that  which  floats  will  vegetate,  while  no 
firmer  is  safe  in  planting  seed  that  is  two  years  old,  though  it 
will  sink.     Some  formers  ascertained  this  latter  fact  to  their 


12 

great  loss  during  the  spring  of  1864.  If  the  season  is  an  av- 
erage one,  such  seed  as  is  two  years  old  can  be  relied  upon  if 
it  has.  weight  sufficient  to  sink  it ;  but  such  a  season  as  the 
spring  of  1 864,  being  unusually  wet,  much  of  the  two-years 
seed  that  was  sown,  though  sown  by  farmers  who  had  them- 
selves raised  it,  failed  to  vegetate. 

The  lesson  to  be  learned  by  such  unfortunate  result  is,  that 
it  is  never  perfectly  safe  to  sow  seed  that  is  two  years  old,  and 
that  the  only  way  a  prudent  cultivator  will  use  it  will  be  when 
mixed  with  a  large  proportion  of  fresh  seed.  There  are  two 
special  risks  incidental  to  the  sinking  test ;  first,  the  danger 
that  the  seed  will  not  be  thoroughly  dried,  as  onion  seed  when 
containing  sufficient  moisture  to  cause  it  to  sprout  if  stored  in 
bulk,  appears  dry  to  the  eye  ;  again,  the  vitality  of  onion  seed 
is  very  apt  to  be  hurt  by  the  drying  of  it,  particularly  so,  as  it 
is  usually  deferred  until  just  previous  to  planting,  when  mat- 
ters are  greatly  hurried,  (as  the  risk  of  injury  through  this  pro- 
cess is  considered  too  great  to  permit  it  to  be  sunk  earlier  in 
the  season,)  and  then  it  is  likely  to  be  exposed  too  near  the 
kitchen  stove.  Seed  thoroughly  winnowed  by  the  wind,  on  a 
large  sheet  spread  on  some  open  spot,  free  from  all  eddies 
will  be  found  to  give  a  quality  very  nearly  or  quite  as  free 
from  light  seed  as  the  sinking  process.  As  the  objection  just 
presented  does  not  lie  against  this  process,  it  is  decidedly  pref- 
erable. The  only  reliable  test  for  the  vitality  of  any  variety 
of  seed  is  that  which  includes  all  the  usual  conditions  of  growth  • 
Testing  by  planting  in  a  hot-house  or  in  a  box  in  a  common 
house,  is  not  fully  reliable,  because  the  seed  are  not  surround- 
ed by  the  conditions  of  natural  growth, — they  then  have  a 
temperature  very  mild,  and  very  nearly  constant,  with  no  ex- 
cess of  moisture  or  dryness, — whereas  the  natural  condition 
of  vegetation  includes  the  very  varying  temperature  of  early 


*3 


spring,  usually  a  great  excess  of  moisture  and  a  low  degree  of 
heat,  all  of  which  causes,  either  single  or  combined  in  their 
effects,  draw  largely  on  the  vital  power  of  the  seed.  Hence, 
seed  that  under  the  favoring  influences  of  the  hot-house  or 
kitchen  may  vegetate,  may  not  have  sufficient  vitality  to  over- 
come the  excessive  cold  or  moisture  of  the  garden.  The  re- 
sult, therefore,  of  the  usual  experimental  tests  can  be  relied 
upon  as  giving  only  an  approximation  to  the  truth. 

Among  these  approximate  tests  is  the  simple  one  of  par- 
tially filling  a  tumbler  with  cotton-wool,  pouring  in  a  little  water, 
not  sufficient  to  cover  the  cotton,  then  sprinkling  a  certain 
number  of  seed  on  the  cotton,  covering  it  with  a  little  addi- 
tional cotton  to  keep  the  moisture  in.  Another  simple  test  is 
to  sprinkle  the  seed  to  be  tested  on  a  moist  woolen  cloth,  fold 
the  cloth  together,  and  put  it  in  a  place  moderately  warm. 
The  proportion  of  seed  that  is  good  will  be  known  by  the 
proportion  that  sprout.  Experienced  eyes  can  learn  some- 
thing by  the  appearance  and  feel  of  the  seed.  Old  seed  re- 
quire several  days  longer  to  vegetate  than  new. 

WHAT    KIND    OF    ONIONS   TO    PLANT. 

Foreign  catalogues  describe  a  score  and  more  varieties  of 
onion  which  are  raised  in  Europe,  but  as  far  as  experiments 
have  been  made  with  them  in  this  country,  it  has  been  found 
that  European-grown  onion  seed  cannot  be  relied  upon  to 
give  as  good  bulbs  as  American-grown  of  the  same  varieties  ; 
while  many  sorts  are  not  adapted  to  our  climate.  A  measure 
of  the  dubious  quality  of  this  foreign  seed  is  well  indicated 
by  the  lower  price  at  which  it  is  generally  catalogued. 

Of  those  grown  from  seed,  the  Large  Red,  Yellow,  and 
White  are  the  three  standard  varieties  in  the  United  States. 


14 

The  Large  Red  is  commonly  known  as  the  Wethersfield 

onion,  it  having  been  extensively  cultivated  in  that  locality  at 
an  early  day  in  onion  culture.  This  is  commonly  divided 
into  four  varieties,  viz  : 


,  kjjk|*||j|ji..v1 


Late  Large  Red  (see  illustration)  is  a 
very  large,  thick,  late  onion,  attaining  a 
diameter  of  from  three  to  six  inches,  and 
on  the  fertile  prairies  of  the  west,  not  un- 
<#$^  frequently  eight  inches. 

Second  Early,  which  differs  only  in  size  and  time  of  ripen- 
ing ;  being  rather  flatter  than  the  large  sort,  not  so  large,  and 
coming  to  maturity  earlier. 

The  Early  Fl.at  Red  is  still  flatter  in  form,  smaller  in  size, 
rather  light-colored,  and  matures  earliest  of  the  three  sorts ; 
as  early  as  the  last  of  July. 

There  is  also  a  fine  Globe  variety  of  Early  Red  onion 
( see  illustration)  in  cultivation,  which 
comes  to  maturity  about  a  week  earlier 
than  the  Danvers  Early,  is  of  good  size 
and  flavor,  and  in  color  usually  of  a  very 
bright,  handsome  red.  The  seed  of  this 
variety  is  much  sought  after  by  onion- 
growers,  but  it  is  difficult  to  procure  in  a  pure  state. 

There  is  a  very  handsome  late  variety  of  onion  known  as 
Southport  Red  Globe,  which  originated  in  Southport,  Con- 
necticut. It  is  quite  late  and  therefore  not  safe  to  plant 
north  of  Connecticut. 

There  are  four  varieties  of  the  Yellow  onion  in  cultivation, 
of  which  the  Yellow  Flat,  called  also  Yellow  Dutch,  and 
Strasburg,  and  in  the   Eastern  States  the  "  Silverskin."  is  the 


parent.  These  varieties  are  the  Common  Flat  onion,  the 
Early  Cracker  onion,  the  Danvers  onion,  and  the  Interme- 
diate onion. 

The  Common  Flat  (incorrectly  called  Silverskin  in  the 
Eastern  States,  a  name  which  properly  belongs  to  the  White 
Portugal)  is  not  so  generally  cultivated  since  the  Early  Dan- 
vers was  introduced,  as  formerly.  It  grows  to  a  diameter  of 
about  three  inches,  is  compact  in  its  structure,  an  1  of  good 
flavor.     It  is  a  good  keeper. 

The  Early  Cracker  onion  (see  illustra- 
tion) is  very  thin,  of  a  beautiful  honey  color, 
quite  compact,  and  oftentimes  hollows  a  lit- 
tle at  the  bulb  around  the  neck.  It  ma- 
tures about  a  week  or  ten  days  earlier  than 
the  Early  Danvers,  and  in  fineness  of  structure  and  delicacy 
of  flavor  is  unsurpassed. 

The  great  practical  objection  to  the  cultivation  of  this  on- 
ion 0:1  an  extensive  scale  is  the  extreme  care  required  in 
handling  it ;  it  needs  care  to  prevent  bruising  and  consequent 
rotting.  For  using  in  the  fall,  this  objection  would  not  lie 
against  it  with  any  great  force  ;  this  and  the  Early  Flat  Red 
are  excellent  varieties  for  raising  where  the  seasons  are  short. 
It  grows  to  a  diameter  of  from  two  and  a  half  to  four  inches. 
The  Early  Round  Danvers  Yellow  onion,  was  originat- 
ed by  Mr.  Daniel  Buxton  and  brother  of  South  Danvers,  by 
careful  selections  of  the  roundest  and  earliest  specimens  from 
the  Yellow  Flat  onion.  The  Danvers  is  an  early  onion,  ma- 
turing within  about  a  week  or  ten  days  of  the  Early  Red  and 
Cracker  onions.  It  is  very  prolific,  and,  like  the  Red  Globe 
onion,  gives  larger  crops  by  about  one-third  than  the  flat  va- 
rieties. When  each  are  seen  just  before  pulling,  the  differ- 
ence in  the  bulk  of  the  crop  is  not  very  apparent,  but  when 


i6 


measured,  the  globular  form  of  the  Danvefs  "tells."  When 
overgrown  by  too  thin  planting  of  seed  this  onion  is  at  times 
rather  coarse  in  structure,  but  ordinarily  it  is  very  compact, 
fine  of  structure,  heavy,  and  a  good  keeper.  When  well  rip- 
ened, I  find  it  keeps  equally  well  under  the  same  circumstances 
as  the  common  Flat  onion.  The  earliness  of  the  Danvers 
onion  is  a  great  gain  in  short  seasons,  or  very  wet  ones  ;  and 
as  this  onion  begins  to  form  its  bulb  quite  early  in  its  growth, 
("bottoms  down"  is  the  farmer's  phrase,)  it  presents  marked 
advantages  over  the  flat  sorts  for  early  marketing.  In  the 
Boston  market  the  Danvers  sells  for  somewhat  more  a  barrel 
than  the  Red. 

Having  had  considerable  experience  in  selecting  onions  for 
seed  purposes,  I  find  that  I  can  obtain  a  much  greater  pro- 
portion of  handsome,  well-developed  seed  onions  from 
onions  that  have  been  raised  from  seed  stock  that  has  been 
carefally  selected  through  a  long  series  of  years,  and  am  led 
to  believe  that  there  can  be  "pedigree"  onions  as  well  as 
p-digree  cattle,  and  that  seed  raised  from  them  can  be  relied 
on  under  the  same  conditions  to  give  a  handsomer  onion 
than  can  the  average  of  seed. 

WHITE     PORTUGAL. 

The  cultivation  of  this  early  onion  is  mostly  confined  to 
the  raising  and  planting  of  what  are  known  as  ''Setts"  or 
Button  onions,  or  onions  for  early  family  use,  as  it  is  a  poor 
keeper.  It  is  a  sweet,  mild  onion,  of  a  good  size  for  family 
use,  though  averaging  considerably  smaller  than  the  varieties 
that  have  been  described.  Here  let  me  say,  that,  for  family 
use,  except  for  frying,  the  common  onions  of  the  market  are 
much  too  large  to  be  economical, — the  two  outer  layers  of 
an  onion  four  inches  and  upwards  in  diameter,  though  mak- 


!7 

ing  up  about  half  the  bulk  of  the  onion,  are  usually  coarse 
and  tough,  and  slough  off  when  boiled.  The  sweetest,  len- 
derest,  and  most  economical  onions  for  this  purpose  of  the 
yellow  sort  are  those  that  are  from  two  to  three  inches  in 
diameter. 

THE     QUEEN. 

Of  the  newer  sorts,  the  "Queen,"  a  white  English  variety 
growing  to  from  two  to  two  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter, 
is  doubtless  the  earliest  at  present  known  ;  so  early  that  under 
favorable  circumstances  it  may  grow  to  a  market  size  about 
as  soon  as  those  raised  from  Philadelphia  setts. 

SOUTHPORT     WHITE     GLOBE. 

This  is  a  large,  globular,  white  variety,  that  is  about  as 
round  and,  when  cured  in  the  shade,  about  as  white  as  a 
snow-ball,  being  the  handsomest  of  all  onions.  It  is  too  late 
to  be  planted  with  safety  in  latitude  north  of  southern  Con- 
necticut. 

MARZAJOLE,      MAMMOTH      TRIPOLI,       NASBEY'S 
MAMMOTH    AND    GIANT    ROCCA. 

Are  European  varieties  that  grow  to  a  mammoth  size  in 
Southern  Europe  where  for  their  mild  flavor  they  are  held  in 
high  esteem.  Grown  in  this  country  they  are  of  a  milder 
flavor  than  our  common  sorts,  but,  though  they  grow  larger,  i 
do  not  attain  to  the  size  they  acquire  in  Europe,  and  though 
excellent  for  use  in  a  green  state  are  not  good  as  keepers. 

There  arc  usually  the  distinctions  I  have  here  stated  be- 
tween the  late  and  early  varieties ;  but  some  times  drought 
and  other  causes  will  almost  destroy  these  distinctions,  ripen- 
ing the  very  early  and  medium  early  sorts  at  the  same  time. 


WHAT     ONIONS     SHALL     I     RAISE? 

Having  described  the  standard  varieties,  a  beginner  may 
query  in  his  mind  as  to  what  variety  would  be  most  profitable 
and  most  reliable  for  him  to  cultivate. 

The  Danvers  onion  is  the  handsomest  shaped,  yields  as 
much  as  any  other  sort,  and  more  than  any  ot  the  flat  varie- 
ties, per  acre.  In  the  town  of  Marblehead,  over  nine 
hundred  bushels  have  been  raised  on  one  acre  of  land. 
It  is  an  onion  very  popular  in  the  Eastern  market  and  in 
Eastern  Massachusetts  is  raised  to  almost  the  exclusion  of  any 
other  variety.  The  Large  Red  onion  is  quite  a  favorite  in 
the  west,  and  is  considered  by  some  dealers  to  be  the  best 
variety  for  shipping  purposes,  though  the  Danvers  is  also 
shipped  largely.  Those  who  live  in  the  latitude  where  the 
onion  is  difficult  to  mature  from  the  seed  in  one  year,  affirm 
that  the  Red  onion  will  mature  farther  south  than  any  other 
variety. 

After  all,  whatever  suggestions  may  be  offered,  the  local 
demand  will  do  most  for  settling  this  point.  Aside  from  this, 
I  would  recommend  the  Early  Red  Globe  Danvers  as,  on  the 
whole,  the  most  desirable  sort.  The  Red  Globe  is  somewhat 
hardier  than  the  Danvers. 

ONION     SETTS     OR     BUTTON     ONION. 

In  that  portion  of  the  United  States  south  of  the  vicinity  of 
New  York  City,  onions  from  seed  raised  as  far  south  as  the 
Middle  States  cannot  be  relied  on  to  mature  the  first  year, 
owing  to  the  extreme  heat  of  the  climate  forcing  the  forma- 
tion of  the  bulb  and  drying  down  the  top  quite  early  in  the 
seasou.  But  if  the  seed  was  grown  in  the  Northern  States 
from  carefully  selected  stock,  it  will  mature  onions  the  first 
season  when  planted  in  the  Southern  States,  as  I  learn  from 


*9 

several  of  my  correspondents,  some  of  whom  have  grown 
them  of  market  size  the  first  season  as  far  south  as  Texas. 
As  a  rule  such  onions  are  hardly  as  large  as  those  grown  far- 
ther north,  but  yet  amply  large  enough  for  market.  To  give 
the  rule  concisely,  if  gardeners  in  the  south  wish  to  raise 
onions  from  the  black  seed  so  that  they  will  grow  to  market 
size  the  first  season,  they  should  procure  seed  grown  as  far 
north  as  possible;  and  vice  versa,  gardeners  in  the  North 
who  wish  to  grow  their  own  setts  should  procure  southern 
grown  seed.  If  in  these  southern  latitudes  two  years  are 
given  to  the  maturing  of  the  crop,  the  first  year,  the  ground 
is  prepared  as  already  directed,  excepting  that  it  is  but  lightly 
manured ;  broad,  shallow  drills,  from  one  to  two  inches  in 
width,  are  made  about  ten  inches  apart,  and  these  are  sown 
early  in  spring,  very  thickly,  at  the  rate  of  about  thirty  pounds 
to  the  acre,  and  the  crop  becomes  mature  in  July,  when  it  is 
pulled  and  stored  in  cool,  airy  lofts,  being  spread  very  thinly 
over  the  floor, — those  raised  from  the  White  Portugal  onion 
to  a  depth  of  about  two  inches,  and  those  from  the  yellow 
sorts  to  a  depth  of  about  four  inches.  A  gentle  raking  occa- 
sionally is  of  advantage  to  promote  dryness  and  to  prevent 
sprouting.  The  yellow  variety  is  the  best  for  keeping,  and 
hence  will  bear  the  confinement  incident  to  transportation 
with  less  injury  ;  but  the  clean,  white  appearance  of  the  onion 
raised  from  the  white  setts  gives  them  the  preference  in  the 
market.  Attempts  are  often  made  in  the  north  by  market- 
gardeners  to  raise  their  own  setts  and  thus  save  the  large 
outlay  often  required  to  purchase  them, — for  most  of  the  early 
onions  now  used  in  the  northern  cities  are  raised  from  the 
setts.  The  attempts  to  raise  them  in  the  north  were  former- 
ly for  the  most  part  a  failure  ;  a  large  proportion  of  the  setts 
so  raised  pushing  seed  shoots  and  thus  spoiling  the  onion  for 
market  purposes,  for    the  reason  that  northern  grown  seed 


20 


was  used.  The  true  sett  is  an  onion  that  has  been  checked 
in  its  annual  growth  and  dried  down  before  it  has  matured, — 
hence  it  has  an  additional  growth  to  make  before  its  annual 
growth  is  matured,  and  before  this  there  can  be  no  seed  shoot 
pushed,  for  the  onion  is  a  biennial  plant  and  the  seed  shoot 
belongs  to  the  second  year  of  its  growth. 

Setts  are  planted  in  rows  about  ten  inches  apart,  and  two 
or  three  inches  distant  in  the  row.  As  the  ground  worms  are 
very  apt  to  remove  them  when  first  planted,  the  bed  should 
be  occasionally  examined.  Some  roll  them  immediately  after 
planting,  others  hold  to  dropping  them  in  shallow  drills,  not 
covering  them  at  all  with  earth. 

Onion  setts  vary  in  size  from  a  pea  to  a  hazel-nut.  The 
smaller  the  size  ot  the  setts,  the  greater  the  number  of  onions 
contained  in  a  given  quantity ;  but  many  find  it  for  their 
interest  to  purchase  setts  of  a  good  size,  as  they  yield  larger 
onions.  Among  the  market-gardeners  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
large  cities  onion  setts  are  very  extensively  planted,  some 
planting  as  high  as  one  hundred  and  fifty  bushels  annually. 
The  quantity  planted  per  acre  varies  with  the  size,  from  six 
to  ten  bushels. 

RARERIPES. 

Rareripes  are  onions  raised  by  planting  out  bulbs  of  the 
growth  of  the  previous  season.  The  Rareripe  oftentimes  dif- 
fers from  the  onion  sett  only  in  being  a  matured  onion,  as 
frequently  they  are  about  as  small  as  the  setts.  The  method 
of  raising  them  is  the  same  as  that  of  raising  early  onions 
from  setts,  with  the  difference  of  planting  them  at  times  at 
greater  distance  apart  in  the  row  proportionate  with  their 
greater  size.  The  raising  of  Rareripes  is  a  very  profitable  way 
of  disposing  of  such  onions  as  are  badly  sprouted,  are  very 


2  I 

small,  or  in  any  way  unprofitable  for  marketing.  A  seed  shoot 
may  be  uniformly  expected  from  each  onion  ;  but  as  this 
greatly  deteriorates  the  quality  of  the  Rareripe,  making  it 
tough  and  woody  in  structure,  it  should  always  be  cut  off.  If 
cut  off  before  the  swelled  growth  appears,  (a  striking  charac- 
teristic of  the  onion  family  and  a  proof  of  the  skill  of  the 
Divine  Architect,  in  strengthening  by  so  simple  a  process  the 
tall,  thin  stalk  designed  to  support  the  heavy  seed  head,)  it 
will  again  shoot  up  ;  wait,  therefore,  until  this  swelling  begins 
to  show  itself,  and  then  cut  below  it,  and  no  more  trouble 
from  this  source  will  ensue.  The  smaller  the  onions  planted 
as  Rareripes,  the  handsomer  will  be  the  crop, — the  very  small 
ones  producing  each  one  handsome  round  onion,  while  the 
large  ones  produce  two  or  more  which  are  irregular  in  form. 

POTATO  ONIONS,  TOP  ONIONS  AND  SHALLOTS. 

Potato  onions,  (see  engraving,) 
Top  onions  and  Shallots  are  thought 
by  some  to  have  originated  from  the 
common  onion.  It  is  certain  that 
at  times  all  three  of  these  varieties 
are  sported  by  the  common  onion. 
In  a  large  field  of  seed  onions,  occasionally  small  onions  will 
be  found,  growing  in  place  of  seed,  and  these  onions  when 
set  out  the  ensuing  spring  will  vegetate  and  develop  readily, 
but  they  will  not  always  in  turn  yield  the  like,  i.  e.,  Top 
onions. 

Potato  onions,  or  multiplying  onions,  as  they  are  some- 
times called,  are  a  thick,  hard-fleshed  variety,  very  mild  and 
pleasant  to  the  taste,  and  tender  if  eaten  soon  after  gathering, 
but  they  grow  to  be  tough  as  the  season  advances.  They 
are  poor  keepers,   unless   spread    very  thinly    in   some   dry 


apartment.  They  are  propagated  by  planting  the  bulbs  in 
drills,  fourteen  inches  apart,  the  largest  ones  six,  the  smaller 
four  inches  apart  in  the  row,  and  the  smallest  ones  two 
inches.  The  small  ones  rapidly  increase  and  make  onions 
from  two  to  three  inches  in  diameter,  while  the  larger  ones 
divide  and  make  from  four  to  a  dozen  or  even  sixteen 
(usually  from  five  to  eight)  small,  irregularly  shaped  onions. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  larger  bulbs  answer  the  same  purpose 
as  the  seed  in  the  common  onion ;  hence  to  have  onions  for 
sale  and  yet  maintain  the  stock,  it  is  necessary  that  both 
sizes  should  be  planted. 

The  Potato  onion  should  be  indulged  for  its  best  develop- 
ment in  a  soil  rather  moister  than  the  varieties  from  seed. 
The  advantage  of  the  Potato  onion  is  its  earliness,  and  the 
fact  that  it  is  not  as  liable  to  injury  from  the  onion  maggot, 
when  that  abounds,  as  the  common  sort.  I  have  seen  an 
instance  where,  on  half  an  acre  of  each  growing  side  by  side, 
the  common  onion  (that  raised  from  seed)  was  almost  wholly 
destroyed,  while  the  Potato  onion  was  nearly  uninjured. 

Shallots  differ  from  Potato  onions  principally  in  their 
characteristics  of  always  multiplying ;  a  Shallot  never  grows 
into  a  large  round  onion,  but  always  multiplies  itself,  forming 
bulbs  that  average  more  oblong  and  are  usually  smaller  than 
those  of  the  Potato  onion.  I  find  them  occasionally  pushing 
a  seed  shoot,  which  I  have  never  seen  in  the  Potato  onion. 
Their  habit  of  growth  is  finer,  making  a  longer  and  more 
slender  leaf  than  the  Potato  onion.  They  are  mild  of  flavor, 
and  greatly  excel  every  other  variety  of  the  onion  family  in 
their  keeping  properties  :  with  little  care  they  may  be  kept 
the  year  round.  All  seedsmen  do  not  know  the  difference 
between  the  Potato  onion  and  the  Shallot.  Within  a  few 
years  I  have  twice  had  Shallots  sent  me  under  the  name 
"Potato  onion." 


*3 


Top  onions  are  propagated  from  little  bulbs,  which  grow  in 
this  variety  where  the  seeds  grow  in  the  common  sorts.  They 
grow  to  a  large  size,  are  pleasant,  mild  flavored,  rather 
coarsely  and  loosely  made  up,  and  have  the  reputation  of 
being  poor  keepers.     Raised  like  the  Potato  onion. 

SEED    SOWING    MACHINES. 

There  are  a  variety  of  machines  in  the  market  for  sowing 
onion  and  other  seed,  but  most  or  all  of  them  can  be 
arranged  in  four  classes,  viz;  Brush  Sowers,  Snap  Sowers, 
Drop  Sowers  and  Agitators. 

Brush  machines  are  those  in  which  the  seed  is  forced  out 
by  a  brush  contained  in  the  seed  box.  The  characteristic 
feature  in  this  class  of  seed  planters  is  of  English  origin,  and 
has  passed  through  various  modifications  in  this  country. 

The  Brush  machine, 
an  engraving  of  which 
is  here  presented, 
makes  the  drills,  drops 
the  seed,  covers  and 
rolls  it ;  it  is  adapted 
for  planting  all  the 
common  root  crops. 

The  rows  in  this  machine  are  marked  out  by  a  chain,  two 
of  which  hang  near  the  handles  and  drag  on  the  ground, 
being  used  alternately.  The  wheel  is  pushed  along  the  mark 
made  by  the  chain. 

The  principle  on  which  the  ''Snap''  machine  is  founded  is 
the  securing  the  flow  of  seed  through  the  aperture  by  a 
jerking  motion,  which  is  usually  effected  by  a  spring  which 
makes  a  snapping  noise  when  set  free. 


24 

One  of  the  machines  built  on  this  principle  is  known  as  the 
Danvers  Onion  Sower.     (See  engraving.) 


The  struct- 
ure is  ex- 
ceedingly 

simple  ;  and 
as  it  involves 

but  few  parts,  and  hence  is  but  little  liable  to  get  out  of 
order,  and  when  out  of  order  can  readily  be  repaired  by  any 
blacksmith,  it  was  quite  a  favorite  with  onion-raisers,  but  im- 
proved implements  have  to  a  large  degree  taken  the  place 
of  it. 

The  Danvers  machine  opens  the  furrows,  drops  the  seed, 
covers  it,  but  does  not  roll  it.  Farmers  usually  attach  an  oM 
horseshoe  to  the  end  of  the  seed  coverer,  which  gives 
sufficient  weight  to  make  it  answer  the  purposes  of  a  roller. 

Matthews'  Garden  Seed  Drill  is  a  fine  example  of  the  seed 
planters  on  the  "agitator"  principle.  This  agitator  is  a  finger 
of  iron  in  the  seed  box  which  projects  just  over  the  orifice 
from  which  the  seed  drops  and  by  a  motion  given  it  by  the 
revolving  of  the  wheel,  keeps  the  seed  continually  stirred  and 
thus  prevents  its  clogging, — a  trouble  to  every  gardener  when 
planting  such  seed  as  beet  and  parsnip.  Were  I  called  upon 
to  recommend  a  seed  sower  for  general  work  it  would  be  the 
Matthews  ;  all  in  the  market  have  more  or  less  of  good 
qualities  but  I  have  found  that  the  Matthews  combines  more 
than  any  other  one. 

On  light  soil  hand  cultivators  are  useful.     These  are  now 


25 


sold  combined  with  seed 
sowers,  so  that  the  same 
implement  may  be  used 
for  either  purpose. 

The  Matthews'  hand 
Cultivator  is  a  good  il- 
lustration of  this  class. 
(See  engraving.) 

In  these  machines  the  seed  falls  through  holes  in  little 
slides  of  tin,  different  slides  being  substituted  as  the  seed  to 
be  sown  is  larger  or  smaller,  or  the  quantity  to  be  planted  is 
greater  or  less.  Farmers  will  often  find  it  for  their  interest  to 
enlarge  or  diminish  the  size  of  these  holes.  The  holes  in  the 
tin  of  the  Danvers  sower,  to  give  a  liberal  sowing  of  about 
four  and  a  half  pounds  to  the  acre,  should  be  large  enough 
to  drop  ten  to  fourteen  onion  seed  to  each  snap.  By  putting 
the  hand  under  and  counting  the  seed  which  falls  in  a  dozen 
snappings  of  the  machine,  a  reliable  average  can  be  ascer- 
tained. As  the  size  of  onion  seed  often  varies,  no  particular 
size  of  hole  can  be  relied  upon  ;  it  must  be  tested  for  each 
season.  Another  convenient  test  is  to  trundle  the  machine 
over  the  barn  floor,  or  a  newspaper  spread  and  secured  in  the 
field,  and  observe  how  thickly  the  seed  fall.  For  a  beginner 
the  first  test  is  the  better  one. 

Of  the  sower  which  drops  the  seed  in  hills  I  will  treat 
presently  under  the  head  of  "Onions  with  Carrots." 

PLANTING    THE    SEED. 

Having  selected  our  seed  sower  and  regulated  it,  the  next 
step  is  to  plant  the  seed.  It  is  exceedingly  necessary  that 
the  first  row  planted  should  be  straight,  as  this  becomes  a 
measure  of  strai^htness  for  all  the  others.     A  steady  hand  and 


26 


a  straight  eve  are  of  great  value  here  ;  but  with  a  little 
practice  a  good  degree  of  accuracy  can  be  obtained  by  most 
persons,  though  a  few  will  always  find  it  for  their  profit  to 
hire  some  experienced  hand.  Two  or  three  sticks  may  serve 
to  mark  out  the  first  row,  and  by  keeping  these  bearing  on 
each  other  as  the  machine  is  pushed  along,  the  first  line  must 
be  a  straight  line.  In  some  machines  the  chains  which  drag 
from  the  handle,  and  in  others  the  wheels,  serve  to  mark 

out  the  rows. 
As  the  Scuffle 
Hoes  (see  en- 
graving) and 
Wheel     Hoes 

(see  engraving)  to  be  used  will  be  of  a  constant  width  it  is 

important  that 
the  width  of  the 
rows  should  be 
kept  constant, 
particularly  that 
they  should  not 
be  brought 
nearer  together 
than  the  dis- 
tance fixed  upon.  The  distance  between  the  rows  varies  in 
different  sections  from  twelve  to  fourteen  inches;  when  seed 
are  planted  for  setts,  ten  inches  is  the  usual  distance  between 
the  drills. 

The  various  hoes  used  in  weeding  are  pushed  before  the 
operator  and  again  drawn  quickly  back,  the  operator  taking 
short  steps,  and  making  the  hoe  cut  in  both  the  forward  and 
backward  slides.  After  the  tops  get  so  far  grown  as  to  bend 
over  into  the  rows,  they  ,:re  apt  to  be  caught  between  the 


27 

wheel  and  axle  of  the  wheel  hoe  ;  hence  from  thence  forward 
the  scuffle  hoe  should  be  used. 

Farmers  sometimes  make  their  own  scuffle  hoes  out  of  a 

piece  of  an  old 
saw,  the  teeth  an- 
swering a  good 
purpose  in  cutting 
off  the  weeds. 
The  V-shaped  hoe, 
(see  engraving,)  called  Howard's  Patent,  will  do  excellent 
sen-ice  if  a  weight  of  about  two  pounds  be  fastened  around 
the  handle  near  the  ground. 

In  Eastern  Massachusetts  fourteen  inches  is  the  usual 
distance  between  the  rows ;  while  in  Southern  New  England! 
and  parts  of  the  West,  twelve  inches  is  preferred. 

Before  planting  the  seed  it  should  be  carefully  examined, 
to  see  that  it  is  perfectly  clean  from  small  stones,  or  any 
substance  that  can  possibly  clog  the  hole  of  exit.  Let  it  be 
remembered,  when  regulating  the  machine,  that  the  seed  will 
not  be  likely  to  fall  so  fast  from  a  full  hopper  as  they  will 
when  it  is  nearly  empty.  The  seed  should  be  sown  from  half 
an  inch  to  large  an  inch  under  the  surface.  The  lighter  the 
soil,  the  deeper  the  seed  may  be  sown.  It  is  thought  that 
deep  sowing  has  the  advantage  of  getting  the  plants  so 
deeply  rooted  that  they  will  bear  having  the  earth  slightly 
pulled  away  from  them  in  the  first  weeding,  without  so  much 
injury  as  sometimes  results  when  they  are  planted  shallow. 
While  planting,  as  well  as  when  using  the  hoe,  our  farmers 
will  find  the  advantage  of  having  a  finely  pulverized  surface 
to  work  on,  free  of  all  clods,  sticks  and  stones,  as  such  will 
continually  vary  the  straightness  of  the  rows,  interfere  with 
the  planting  and  covering  of  the  seed,  and,  when  the  hoe  is 


used,  glance  it  out  of  its  course  in  among  the  tender  plants. 

HOEING    AND    WEEDING. 

In  from  two  to  three  weeks,  if  the  weather  is  an  average 
for  the  season,  the  young  plants  by  a  close  examination  may 
be  seen  pushing  their  green  arches  above  the  surface,  bearing 
a  close  resemblance  to  a  curve  of  grass.  As  soon  as  suffi- 
ciently up  to  enable  a  sharp  eye  to  determine  the  course  of 
the  rows,  without  delaying  a  day  or  an  hour,  it  the  weather 
permits,  the  prudent  cultivator  will  slide  through  his  Scuffle 
Hoe,  as  at  this  season  of  the  year  the  weather  is  very  uncer- 
tain, and  the  land  may  become  too  wet  to  be  worked  soon 
after  the  young  plants  appear,  and  yet  not  too  wet  to  hinder 
a  rapid  growth  of  weeds.  Sowing  a  few  radish  with  the 
onion  seed  is  sometimes  practised.  As  the  radish  seed  veg- 
etates in  a  few  days  the  rows  are  thereby  marked  out  and  the 
wheel  hoe  can  be  used  earlier.  Care  need  be  taken  that  the 
radish  seed  are  not  larger  than  the  onion  and  so  clog  the 
hole.  To  obtain  very  choice  cabbage  plants,  which  grow  fine 
and  stocky,  farmers  drop  a  few  seed  into  the  hopper  with  the 
onion  seed.  On  so  rich  a  seed  bed,  prompt  action  is  very 
necessary,  or  a  miserably  discouraging  tangle  will  soon  be 
the  result  of  negligence.  In  their  comparative  freedom  from 
weeds  the  cultivators  in  the  West,  on  their  new  land,  have  a 
great  advantage  over  their  brethren  in  the  East.  By  selecting 
pasture  land  and  avoiding  the  use  of  barn  manure,  the  work 
of  weeding  may  be  greatly  reduced.  I  have  raised  a  crop 
on  such  land,  when  the  entire  expense  from  after  the  crop 
was  planted  until  it  was  gathered  and  got  into  the  barn  was 
but  $35.00  to  the  acre.  It  was  so  free  of  weeds  that  one 
man  slid  through,  hand  weeded  and  partly  thinned  an  acre 
and  a  quarter  inside  of  a  day.  In  about  a  week  after  the  hoe 
has  passed  through  them,  the  young  plants  will  need  their 


20 

first  weeding  with  the  fingers.  This  is  hand-and-knee  work 
and,  pursued  as  it  has  to  be  in  this  position  at  intervals  through- 
out the  heat  of  summer,  it  is  to  many  the  most  wearying  work 
of  the  farm.  Boys  being  more  nimble  fingered  than  men, 
besides  working  for  lower  wages,  there  is  a  great  saving  in 
employing  themr provided  they  can  be  relied  0:1  to  pull  up  the 
roots  of  the  weeds.  When  several  are  at  work  it  will  be  wise 
to  have  a  man  with  them. 

To  protect  the  knees  from  sharp  stones,  ''pads"  are  used, 
which  consist  of  squares  of  about  eight  inches,  of  several 
thicknesses  of  woolen  usually  covered  with  leather,  strapped 
to  the  knees.  In  ordinary  seasons  onions  require  three  or 
four  hand-and-knee  weedings,  and  from  four  to  six  slidings. 
with  the  hoe.  A  man's  judgment  must  be  his  guide.  As  onions 
shade  the  ground  but  slightly,  weeds  grow  rapidly  in  onion 
beds  ;  and  if  they  are  once  allowed  to  get  the  start,  the  labor 
of  cultivation  is  immensely  increased.  Some  cultivators  prac- 
tice scratching  the  soil  away  from  the  onions  when  weeding, 
with  an  old  knife  curved  at  a  right  angle  near  the  point,  or  by 
a  piece  of  iron  hoop  curved,  the  end  being  nailed  to  a  small 
piece  of  wood  conveniently  held  in  the  hand.  Others  prac- 
tice throwing  the  soil  slightly  around  the  young  onions  with  a 
scuffle  hoe  made  with  reference  to  this  use,  with  a  view  of 
smothering  the  small  weeds.  Noyes'  hand  weeder  will  be  found 
a  very  handy  little  implement  for  removing  weeds,  particularly 

when  the  surface  of 
the  ground  is  some- 
what hard.  When  the 
onions  have  begun  to 
"bottom  down,"  i.  c.  form  their  bulbs,  it  is  the  general  prac- 
tice to  remove  as  far  as  practicable  any  surplus  earth  that  has 
accumulated  around  them.    In  weeding,  two  or  three  rows  are 


3° 

taken  together,  the  weeds  being  dropped  between  the  rows. 
Just  before  the  crop  ripens  down,  larger  weeds  will  show  them- 
selves here  and  there  over  the  beds  ;  these  are  generally  gath- 
ered in  baskets  and  dropped  at  the  end  of  the  rows.  If  the 
seed  of  such  weeds  get  ripe  before  they  are  pulled,  the  weeds 
should  be  carefully  deposited  in  a  pile  in  some  by-place,  where 
they  can  be  burned  when  dry.  Growers  who  practice  throw- 
ing such  weeds  to  their  hogs  because  they  are  large  and  suc- 
culent, make  an  annual  seeding  of  their  beds  with  weeds. 
Particularly  is  this  true  of  Purslane,  one  of  the  greatest  pla- 
gues in  the  heat  of  the  season.  The  habit  of  this  plant  is  to 
ripen  the  seed,  well  down  on  the  stock,  while  the  main  body 
of  the  plant  is  in  its  full  vigor ;  hence  it  usually  happens  that 
much  seed  drops  into  the  land  some  time  before  it  is  pulled, 
while  the  farmer  never  mistrusts  it  has  ripened.  I  have  seen 
Purslane  completely  eradicated  from  garden  plots  where  it 
formerly  was  a  pest,  by  a  little  care  in  this  matter  of  letting  it  go 
to  seed.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  weed  known  as 
chickweed.  When  blank  spots  occur  from  poor  seed,  poor 
planting,  or  the  ravages  of  the  onion  maggot,  bush  beans,  cab- 
bages or  tomatoes  may  be  planted. 

When  the  plants  are  too  thick,  over  one  to  two  inches,  they 
should  be  thinned  ;  but  the  beginner  had  better  pull  with  a 
sparing  hand,  for,  if  the  ground  has  been  manured  very  liber- 
ally, the  crop  will  do  well  when  the  plants  are  very  thickly 
together,  and  they  will  oftentimes  grow  as  large  when  very 
thick  as  they  will  with  three  times  the  room.  Onion-growers 
like  to  see  their  onions  piled  two  or  three  deep  as  they  grow, 
the  upper  layer  being  entirely  out  of  the  ground  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  roots.  When  the  tops  begin  to  fall  over,  the 
onion  is  rapidly  maturing,  and  the  bulbs  will  now  grow  very 
fast.     Farmers  will  tell  you  that  "the  top  is  going  down  into 


3T 

the  Dottom."  The  Flat  onions  begin  to  bottom  late  in  the 
season,  while  the  Danvers  makes  a  very  encouraging  show  of 
bulb  quite  early.  Should  the  land  have  been  but  poorly  ma- 
nured in  seasons  of  drought,  the  crop  will  be  apt  to  be  ripen- 
ed prematurely,  forming  a  small  sized  onion,  while  (divided 
it  may  be  by  merely  a  wall)  those  that  have  been  more  liber- 
ally manured  stand  the  drought,  and  keep  green  sufficiently 
long  to  receive  advantage  from  the  later  rains  ;  an  investment 
of  twenty  dollars  in  manure  thus  making  a  difference  some- 
times of  a  hundred  dollars  in  the  crop.  If  the  crop  is  quite 
backward,  late  in  the  season  the  necks  of  the  onions  are 
sometimes  bent  over  to  hasten  the  formation  of  the  bulb. 
This  is  done  by  hand,  or  by  rolling  a  barrel  over  two  rows  at 
a  time. 

STORING     THE     CROP. 

When  the  necks  have  fallen  over,  and  the  great  proportion 
of  them  are  dry,  the  crop  should  be  pulled  by  hand  and  be 
laid  in  winrows,  about  three  rows  being  put  in  one.  At  this 
time  all  weeds  remaining  should  be  pulled  and  piled,  prepar- 
atory to  the  final  clearing  of  the  bed.  The  pulling  of  the 
crop  should  not  be  delayed  after  the  tops  are  well  dry  ;  for  if 
rain  should  now  fall,  the  onions  will  be  apt  to  re-root  to  their 
injury.  Should  the  backwardness  of  the  season  make  it  ne- 
cessary to  pull  the  crop  in  rather  a  green  state,  it  will  be  well 
to  allow  it  to  remain  untouched,  after  pulling,  for  about  a  week, 
before  turning  or  stirring,  which  will  tend  to  hasten  the  decay 
of  the  greener  tops  ;  otherwise  they  should  be  carefully  stirred 
every  pleasant  day  with  a  wooden-toothed  rake.  This  should 
be  very  carefully  done,  as  the  onions  are  very  easily  injured, 
especially  at  this  stage,  and  when  injured  are  almost  as  likely 
to  rot  as  a  bruised  apple.     See  that  they  are  not  injured  by 


32 

the  raking  or  treading  of  a  careless  hand.  When  the  crop  is 
thoroughly  dried,  the  onions  feeling  hard  to  the  handling,  it 
will  be  ready  for  topping  for  market.  They  are  carefully 
collected  in  baskets,  rejecting  all  stones,  scallions  and  rotten 
onions,  and  taken  in  wagon  loads  to  the  barn,  when  the  tops 
are  cut  off  clean  to  the  onion  with  a  sharp  knife,  or  if  the 
necks  are  small  and  quite  dry  they  may  be  pulled  off  by  the 
thumb  and  finger.  This  is  usually  done  by  boys  or  females 
from  two  to  four  cents  a  bushel.  While  collecting,  look 
sharply  on  the  bottom  of  the  onions  to  detect  rotten  ones. 
Some  growers  prefer  to  leave  such  of  the  crop  as  they  design 
to  keep  for  a  late  market  untopped.  If  it  is  intended  to 
market  the  crop  immediately,  the  onions  may  be  piled  to  a 
depth  of  three  or  four  feet ;  otherwise  they  should  not  be 
over  two  feet  in  depth.  Leave  the  barn  doors  and  windows 
all  open  every  pleasant  day.  As  the  crop  is  topped,  those  of 
the  size  of  a  hazel-nut  and  smaller  are  classed  as  pickle 
onions,  these  being  marketed  principally  for  that  purpose,  and 
usually  bringing  about  half  the  price  of  the  full  grown  ones. 

TRACING,     OR     ROPING     ONIONS. 

When  the  crop  has  ripened  down  but  poorly,  the  greener 
onions  are  at  times  traced.  This  is  done  by  cutting  off  the 
neck  within  about  two  inches  of  the  bulb,  and  binding  it  to  a 
handful  of  straw ;  beginning  at  the  butt  end  of  the  straw,  lay 
the  neck  against  the  straw,  give  two  or  three  firm  turns  with 
the  twine  (net  or  wrapping  twine),  add  another  onion,  and 
thus  proceed  till  the  straw  is  covered,  the  larger  onions  being 
tied  to  the  bottom  and  gradually  decreasing  in  size  to  the  top 
Onions  so  slowly  ripened  that  they  would  soon  spoil  if  stored 
in  a  mass,  will  keep  well  when  traced,  and  oftentimes  bring 
a   greater   profit   than   the  best    of    the    crop.      Rareripes, 


33 

and  such  of  the  earlier  onions  as  are  to  be  sent  long  dis- 
tances, or  be  kept  awhile  before  marketing,  are  sometimes 
traced.  Traced  onions  keep  in  good  condition  a  long  while 
in  a  dry,  cool  place.  Within  a  few  years  tracing  has  almost 
ceased  in  this  vicinity. 

MARKETING     THE     CROP. 

The  Sett  onions,  Potato  onions,  Top  onions  and  Rare- 
ripes, in  some  sections,  are  for  the  most  part  sent  to  market 
in  a  green  state  in  bunches.  The  Potato  onions  are  brought 
from  the  South,  dry,  in  large  quantities  to  supply  the  North- 
ern markets,  soon  after  the  arrival  of  the  Bermuda  onions, 
just  before  the  ripening  of  the  Northern  crop.  i\fter  the 
Potato  onions  follows  the  earliest  variety  of  the  Red,  and 
immediately  after,  the  Danvers,  and  finally,  the  large  Red 
completes  the  season.  The  sales  in  the  Northern  markets 
early  in  the  season  are  made  mostly  for  the  supply  of  the 
local  immediate  demand,  the  great  bulk  of  the  crop  not  being 
sent  in  before  the  call  for  shipping  purposes  has  commenced. 
For  this  reason,  farmers  find  it  to  be  for  their  interest  to  do 
but  little  more  than  feel  the  market  until  about  the  middle  of 
October,  as  large  purchases  made  previous  to  this  period  are 
mostly  as  an  investment  by  speculators,  with  the  exception 
of  such  lots  as  go  to  supply  the  markets  of  large  towns  and 
cities  of  the  extreme  North  beyond  the  limits  of  the  onion- 
growing  region. 

The  price  of  onions  varies  greatly ;  they  have  sold  as  low 
as  seventy-five  cents  a  barrel,  while  the  early  crop  of  1864 
sold  as  high  as  sixteen  dollars  a  barrel,  by  the  five  hundred 
barrels.  From  September  to  March,  in  the  same  season,  the 
fluctuation  is  sometimes  between  two  dollars  and  six  dollars. 
Crops  have  at  times  been  sold  to  be  delivered  in  the  course 


34 

of  two  months,  and  in  that  time  have  more  than  doubled  in 
price.  The  general  truth  is,  that  those  brought  latest  to 
u.diket,  being  kept  till  near  spring,  bring  the  best  prices. 
The  great  facilities  afforded  for  onion  raising  by  the  fertile 
soil  and  favoring  climate  of  the  West,  will  doubtless  in  a  few 
years  tell  powerfully  on  the  Eastern  market. 

PRESERVING     THE     CROP. 

If  it  is  the  design  to  keep  the  crop  for  a  winter  market,  it 
should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  out  of  danger  from 
severe  frosts,  in  bulk,  but  not  over  two  feet  in  depth.  Onions 
will  bear  a  temperature  of  28  degrees  without  injury,  or  any 
degree  of  cold  if  kept  frozen  till  the  final  thawing  when  in 
bulk.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  let  them  rest  in  a  lattice  work  of 
slats  on  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  building,  that  the  air 
may  circulate  through  them.  If  kept  in  barrels,  these  should 
not  be  headed,  and  should  have  two  or  three  openings  made 
with  a  hatchet  or  large  auger  in  the  sides  near  the  bottom. 
If  it  is  designed  to  keep  the  onions  till  spring,  the  cheapest 
and  best  way  is  to  freeze  them.  To  do  this,  select  the  north- 
west portion  of  some  out  building  under  which  the  air  does 
not  circulate,  spread  the  onions  about  one  and  a  half  feet  in 
depth,  leaving  a  vacant  space  of  about  two  feet  from  the  side 
of  the  building,  let  them  get  thoroughly  frozen,  then  cover 
them  closely  with  an  old  sail,  or  any  cloth,  to  keep  the  hay 
from  mixing  with  them,  and  spread  the  hay  two  feet  or  more 
in  depth  above  the  covering ;  also  pack  fine  hay  closely 
between  the  heap  and  the  sides  of  the  building.  Here  let 
them  remain  untouched  until  the  frost  is  entirely  out,  when 
they  should  be  spread  at  once,  well  aired,  and  turned  care- 
fully and  often  until  thoroughly  dried. 

If  the  onions  in  the  fall  are  not  well  ripened,  or  if  a  larger 


35 

proportion  than  usual  are  rotten,  which  is  apt  to  be  the  case 
after  a  very  wet  season  or  when  the  onion  maggot  has  given 
much  trouble,  to  store  largely  for  winter  sales  is  attended  with 
great  risk.  I  have  known  one  enterprising  cultivator  to  sink 
several  thousand  dollars  in  a  single  season  by  storing  heavily 
under  such  circumstances. 

SMUT,  RUST  AND  MAGGOT. 

The 'onion  crop  is  sometimes  severely  injured  by  a  disease 
resembling  mildew.  The  tops  of  the  leaves  die,  and  the 
whole  plant  is  more  or  less  covered  by  this  white  blast. 
From  the  effects  of  it  the  onions  almost  cease  their  growth, 
and  the  crop  finally  obtained  is  small  in  size.  This  disease 
in  some  sections  is  known  by  the  name  of  "rust."  It  is 
more  frequent  in  extraordinary  wet  seasons,  and  is  more  com- 
mon on  old  beds  than  new.  The  best  remedy  yet  known  for 
old  beds  is  to  carefully  remove  from  the  bed  and  destroy  at 
the  close  of  the  season  all  diseased  bulbs,  as  they  will  be 
likely  to  spread  the  disease  by  giving  it  a  lodgment  in  the 
soil,  then  ru»  the  plow  a  little  deeper,  and  thus  mix  in  a  little 
new  soil. 

The  onion  maggot  is  hatched  from  the  eggs  of  a  fly,  which 
are  deposited  in  the  plant  (not  the  seed)  very  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground.  Its  presence  may  be  detected  in  the 
crop  when  very  young  by  the  sudden  turning  yellow  and  fall- 
ing over  of  the  plant,  when,  if  the  attempt  is  made  to  pull,  it 
will  usually  break  off  near  the  surface,  and  on  squeezing  sev- 
eral small  maggots  will  present  themselves.  Some  writers 
state  that  the  fly  deposits  its  eggs  only  at  an  early  period  in 
the  growth  of  the  plant.  It  is  true  that  some  seasons  the  in- 
jury is  most  marked  previous  to  the  bottoming  of  the  onion, 
but  I  have  seen  beds  injured  at  every  stage  of  their  growth, 


36 

and  in  one  season  about  half  of  the  crop  was  destroyed  by 
the  maggot  at  the  close  of  the  season  after  the  onions  had 
been  pulled.  Various  remedies  have  been  proposed,  but  of 
these  it  may  be  said  that  they,  are  not  practical  on  a  large 
scale.  The  idea  on  which  most  of  these  is  based  is  that  of 
producing  a  scent  so  disagreeable  as  to  drive  away  the  fly  ; 
but  old  experimenters  recall  the  capacity  of  the  Canker-worm 
moth  and  the  Squash  beetle  to  ignore  the  most  repulsive 
obstructions  of  this  kind  when  stimulated  by  their  instinct  to 
deposit  their  eggs.  Pine  sawdust,  either  clear,  soaked  in  the 
urine  of  cattle,  or  in  the  ammoniacal  liquor  from  gasworks, 
scattered  over  the  bed  just  before  the  appearance  of  the 
plants,  at  the  rate  of  a  bushel  to  ten  square  rods,  guano 
sprinkled  along  the  rows  and  on  the  plants,  twice  during  the 
season,  unleached  ashes  used  in  the  same  manner, — these  have 
given  satisfactory  results  to  some  growers.  Scalding  water 
poured  from  a  common  watering-pot  through  a  hole  the  size 
of  a  pipe  stem,  along  the  drills  near  the  roots  of  the  plants, 
and  repeated  three  or  four  times  during  a  season,  is  said  to 
be  efficacious.  It  is  obvious  that  the  practical  value  of  such 
a  remedy  must  be  confined  to  a  very  small  area  of  land. 

In  New  England  the  maggot  has  been  slowly  making  his 
way  North,  adding  greatly  to  the  uncertainty  of  the  crop, 
until  his  ravages  have  extended  to  Southern  Massachusetts. 
Very  light  soils  appear  to  be  most  affected  by  his  ravages.  In 
some  seasons  the  injury  done  is  insignificant,  and  on  the 
whole  the  area  planted  in  Massachusetts  has  not  been  mate- 
rially reduced. 

He  will  one  year  confine  his  ravages  mostly  to  one  portion 
of  a  township,  and  the  next  season  reverse  matters ;  while 
some  tracts  are  almost  never  injured,  on  others  he  appears  to 
settle  down  as  a  permanent  resident. 


37 
RAISING  ONION  SEED. 

What  does  all  this  investment  of  money,  time,  labor  and 
watchfulness,  amount  to  if  the  seed  is  worthless,  has  no  vital- 
ity, is  not  true  to  name,  or  was  grown  from  worthless  trash? 
Onion  seed  should  be  raised  from  the  very  best  onions  of  the 
very  best  crop  grown  in  the  vicinity.  The  best  type  should 
be  first  selected,  which  should  be  a  medium  sized  onion,  very 
hard  and  compact  in  structure,  with  a  close,  thin,  fine  skin, 
and  a  very  small  neck.  Those  selected  for  seed  should  be 
the  earliest  ripened  of  the  crop,  provided  such  are  fully  ripen- 
ed and  not  blighted.  To  select  the  earliest  onions,  the 
seed  grower  should  visit  the  field  before  the  crop  is  pulled. 

Onion  seed  is  sometimes  (I  fear  too  often)  grown  from  the 
entire  crop,  be  it  good,  bad  or  indifferent.  A  great  step  of 
improvement  on  this  is  to  purchase  outright  as  good  a  crop 
as  can  be  found  ;  but  the  only  way  to  secure  and  keep  the 
best  and  most  reliable  seed  is  that  first  given.  Poor  onion 
seed  is  always  very  dear  indeed,  as  a  present,  while  first-class 
seed  at  the  highest  price  yet  paid  is  worth  a  long  and  careful 
seeking. 

Seed  onions  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  spread  to 
about  a  foot  in  depth ;  if  kept  in  barrel,  (old  lime  casks  are 
best)  these  should  be  left  unheaded,  and  two  or  three  pieces 
should  be  chopped  off  near  the  bottom  to  admit  a  circulation 
of  air.  As  early  in  the  spring  as  the  ground  can  be  worked, 
they  should  be  set  out  in  trenches,  (the  onion  when  covered 
in  trenches  will  stand  a  heavy  frost  without  injury,)  which 
should  be  from  three  to  four  feet  apart  and  about  four  inches 
below  the  surface,  the  land  having  first  been  heavily  manured. 
Some  good  seed  growers  apply  their  manure  directly  in  the 
trench,  while  others  spread  it  broadcast  and  plow  in.     I  Dre- 


3« 

fer  to  plow  in  a  liberal  quantity,  and  then  use  ashes,  super- 
phosphate of  lime  or  guano,  in  the  rows,  applying  it  just 
before  covering  onions.  If  the  onions  are  much  sprouted, 
the  sprout  may  be  cut  off  quite  home  to  the  onion,  which 
will  insure  a  straighter  and  healthier  growth.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  plant  right  end  up,  for,  odd  as  it  sounds,  in  the 
spring  it  sometimes  requires  a  little  care  to  determine  which 
is  the  right  end.  As  soon  as  the  onion  is  well  rooted,  the 
earth  should  be  drawn  up  to  it ;  and  this  should  be  done 
three  times  during  the  season,  until  the  earth  is  heaped  around 
them  eight  or  ten  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
The  first  hoeing  should  be  given  them  very  soon  after  the 
sprout  starts,  to  fully  cover  the  onion,  as  when  exposed  it  is 
very  apt  to  decay.  With  this  support,  on  land  that  is  not  too 
moist,  I  find  that  no  further  precaution  is  necessary  to  keep 
the  seed  tops  from  the  ground,  though  it  is  the  practice 
of  many  growers  to  support  with  light  strips  of  wood,  or  a 
line  drawn  along  about  two  feet  from  the  ground.  After  the 
last  hoeing,  (and  very  clean  culture  should  be  given  then), 
they  should  be  gone  among  as  little  as  possible. 

The  seed  tops  may  be  safely  cut  (leaving  about  six  inches 
of  the  stem  on)  when  the  seed  vessels  begin  to  crack ;  or 
what  is  a  better  guide  yet  (for  after  the  seed  vessels  begin  to 
crack  much  seed  is  apt  to  be  lost,  especially  by  heavy  storms,) 
after  the  turning  yellow,  near  the  ground,  of  the  seed  stalk ; 
when  this  occurs,  the  top  may  be  removed  immediately,  even 
though  it  should  appear  quite  green  above. 

Seed  tops  will  be  often  found  in  which  the  seed  in  the 
shortest-stemmed  receptacles  is  ripened,  and  the  receptacles 
themselves  are  cracked,  while  a  fresh  growth  of  seed  vessels 
in  a  green  state  almost  conceal  them  ;  in  such  cases  I  would 
advise  the  cutting  of  the  top.     The  tops  when  cut  should  be 


39 

spread  to  a  depth  of  six  inches  or  less,  in  a  warm  place 
where  heat  and  air  abound,  and  be  turned  two  or  three  times 
daily,  until  thoroughly  dried,  when  the  seed  is  ready  to  be 
threshed  out ;  or  it  may  be  stored  in  barrels  in  a  dry  loft,  and 
threshed  as  wanted.  If  the  seed  is  plump  and  has  been  well 
ripened,  the  frequent  turning  of  the  stalks  will  have  shaken 
out  by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  it, — in  some  seasons  more 
than  five-sixths. 

As  the  seed  stalks  make  but  little  shade,  the  ground  be- 
tween the  rows  can  be  cultivated  to  spinach,  lettuce, 
radishes,  turnips,  or  some  early  vegetables,  then  this  will  make 
the  hilling  of  the  seed  more  costly,  and  when  these  are  har- 
vested, be  planted  to  cucumbers  for  pickles.  The  planting 
between  the  rows  should  be  confined  to  the  middle,  and  in 
trenches  an  inch  or  so  below  the  surface,  unless  it  be  made 
after  the  onions  have  received  their  final  hoeing ;  otherwise 
the  drawing  of  the  earth  around  the  seed  stalks  will  seriously 
interfere  with  these  crops. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem  to  those  who  have  not  tried  it,  such 
rampant  growers  such  as  squashes  can  be  raised  among  seed 
onions  and  generally  with  no  material  injury  to  the  seed.  I 
have  known  five  tons  of  Hubbard  Squashes  grown  on  about 
half  an  acre  of  ground  planted  to  seed  onions.  The  squash 
should  be  planted  towards  the  close  of  May,  after  the  onions 
have  received  their  final  hilling,  two  or  three  seeds  being 
planted  close  to  every  other  row,  and  about  nine  feet  apart  in 
the  row  ;  allow  but  one  plant  ta  grow  in  a  hill.  The  vines, 
thus  having  plenty  of  room  between  the  rows  to  spread  about, 
do  not  incline  much  to  climbing  on  the  seed  stock.  Care 
should  be  exercised  to  break  off  at  once  the  tendrils  of  such 
as  attempt  to  climb.     The  one  plant  to  a  hill  system  will  be 


40 

found  to  yield  as  liberal  a  crop  and  finer  squashes  than  the 
old  system  of  three  or  four  to  the  hill. 

The  yield  of  onion  seed  to  the  barrel  of  seed  onions  varies 
greatly;  indeed,  no  investments  near  the  seaboard  prove 
more  speculative.  The  maggot  sometimes  proves  very  de- 
structive, so  much  so  that  the  crop  will  not  average  half  a 
pound  to  the  barrel,  while  under  very  favoring  circumstances 
crops  have  been  raised  which  average  eighteen  pounds  to  the 
barrel. 

When  the  seed  is  fully  dry,  (and  seed  that  has  been  sunk 
should  have  a  long  exposure  to  the  air  and  frequent  stirrings  ; 
I  have  known  large  lots  spoilt  from  want  of  care  in  this),  it 
should  be  so  stored  as  to  be  safe  from  all  injury  from  cats  and 
other  animals,  who  are  apt  to  resort  to  it,  to  the  utter  de- 
struction of  its  vitality. 

RAISING     CARROTS     WITH     ONIONS. 

The  plan  of  raising  carrots  with  onions  is  considered  a  great 
improvement  by  many  who  have  adopted  it,  as  the  yield  of 
carrots  is  thought  to  be  a  clear  gain,  diminishing  but  little  or 
none  the  yield  of  onions.  Carrots  are  planted  in  two  ways ; 
one  by  sowing  them  in  drills  between  every  other  row  of 
onions,  and  the  other,  which  is  considered  an  improvement, 
called  the  Long  Island  plan,  by  planting  the  onions  in  hills 
from  seven  to  eight  inches  from  center  to  center,  dropping 
a  number  of  seed  in  each  hill,  and  from  the  first  to  the 
twelfth  of  June  planting  the  carrot  seed,  usually  by  hand, 
between  these  hills  in  two  rows,  then  skipping  one,  and  thus 
on  through  the  piece.  The  onions  as  they  are  pulled  are 
thrown  into  every  third  row,  the  carrots  being  left  to  mature. 
By  this  method  from  two  hundred  to  six  hundred  bushels  of 
carrots  are  raised  per  acre  in  addition  to  the  usual  crop  of 


4* 

onions.  More  manure  is  required  for  the  two  crops  than  for 
the  onions  alone. 

The  Machine  used  for  sowing  in  drills  has  two  boxes 
attached  to  the  axle  at  equidistance  from  the  wheels  ;  there 
are  three  or  four  holes  in  the  axle  that  communicate  with  the 
seed  in  the  boxes,  and  as  these  holes  pass  under  the  boxes 
they  are  filled  with  seed,  and  as  they  turn  the  seed  are 
dropped  into  the  earth.  Screws  are  sunk  into  the  holes, 
which  can  be  sunk  more  or  less  at  pleasure,  and  the  quantity 
of  seed  which  the  holes  will  contain  is  thus  graded. 

The  machine  should  first  be  tested  and  so  regulated  that 
on  a  barn  floor  it  will  drop  from  eleven  to  twelve  seed  from 
each  hole.  When  so  regulated,  on  using  in  the  field  it  will 
drop  but  from  seven  to  twelve,  owing  to  the  more  uneven 
motion. 

This,  like  all  sowing  machines,  and  the  same  may  be  said 
of  the  scuffle  hoe  and  wheel  hoe,  is  pushed  along  before  the 
operator. 

My  farmer-friends,  I  have  now  given  you  the  result  of  my 
own  experience  in  the  raising  of  onions,  Potato  onions,  Top 
onions,  Shallots,  and  onion  Setts,  combined  with  the  experi- 
ence in  onion  growing  of  a  neighborhood  where  a  hundred 
thousand  bushels  are  raised  annually,  with  the  results  of  per- 
sonal observation  in  other  localities,  and  with  facts  that  I  have 
collected  by  corresponding  with  different  sections  of  the 
United  States. 

I  hope  this  contribution  will  prove  acceptable. 


JAMES  J.  H.  GREGORY. 


Marblehead,  Mass. 


42 


ANALYSIS     OF     THE     ONIONS. 

A  recent  analysis,  under  the  direction  of  Prof.  Goessmar 
of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  gives  the  following 
as  the  principal  constituents  of  the  onion  : 

Air  dry  onions  without  leaves  were  found  to  consist  of: 


Water  (at  ioo°  to  no°  G.) 

1  )rv  vegetable  matter 
and  contained  the  following  amounts  of 

Nitrogen  .... 

Sulphur  .         .  . 

Ash 

The  percentages  of  the  principal  constituents  of  the  ash 
were  : 

Potassium  oxide 

Sodium  oxide 

Calcium  oxide 

Magnesium  oxide    . 

Sesquioxide  of  iron 

Silicic  acid 

Phosphoric  acid 

Sulphuric  acid  not  determined 
In  the  above  table  Potassium  oxide,  Sodium  oxide,  Cal- 
cium   oxide    and    Magnesium  oxide,  mean    practically  pure 
Potash,  Soda,  Lime  and  Magnesia. 

I  infer  from  the  table  that  of  the  three  grand  essentials  in 
manure,  Nitrogen,  Potash  and  Phosphoric  acid,  the  onion 
requires  about  equal  quantities  o/  the  two  former  and  half  as 
much  of  the  latter. 

I  trust  this  contribution  will  prove  acceptable. 

TAMES  J.  H.  GREGORY. 


89.20  per  cent. 
10.80 

0.212  percent. 
0.048       " 
0.436 


38.51  per  cent. 
1.90 
8.20 

3.65 
0.58 

3-33 
15.80 


Marblehead.  Mass. 


SQUASHES, 


HOW  TO    GBOW   THEM. 


A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  SQUASH  CULTURE,  GIVING  FULL  DETAILS 
ON  EVERY  POINT,  INCLUDING  KEEPING  AND  MARKETING  THE  CROP. 


BY 

JAMES  J.   H.   GREGORY, 

MARBLEHEAD,  MASS. 


NEW-YORK: 

ORANGE    JTJDD    &    COMPANY, 

41  PARK   ROW. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1867,  by 

ORANGE  JUDD  &  CO. 

At  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Conrt  of  the  United  States  for  the 
Southern  District  of  New-York. 


Lovbjoy  &  Son, 

Electrotypebs  xsd  Stekeotyperb. 

15  Vandewater  street  N.  Y. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  recent  great  increase  in  interest  in  squash  cultiva- 
tion, which  has  been  promoted  by  the  introduction  of  new 
varieties,  has  seemed  to  me  to  demand  a  more  thorough 
and  exhaustive  treatment  of  the  subject  than  is  to  be 
found  in  our  present  standard  works  on  horticulture  or 
agriculture.  I  am  sustained  in  this  position  by  the  great 
number  of  questions  propounded  to  me  annually  in  the 
course  of  an  extensive  correspondence.  To  answer  these 
questions,  and  to  bring  so  delicious  a  vegetable  as  the 
squash  into  a  more  general  and  more  successful  cultiva- 
tion, is  the  object  of  this  treatise.  The  Squash  family  ( Cu- 
curbitacece)  have  their  habitat  in  the  tropics  and  warmer 
portions  of  the  temperate  zones;  hence  they  require  our 
hottest  seasons  to  develop  them  in  perfection.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Vegetable  Marrow,  the  squash  family  is 
almost  unknown  to  our  English  cousins,  as  likewise  is  true 
of  our  corn  and  beans,  for  though  the  average  temperature 
of  the  year  is  higher  with  them  than  with  us,  yet  the  ex- 
treme hot  weather,  which  these  vegetables  require,  is 
there  wanting. 

The  introduction  of  the  squash  is  a  matter  of  the  past 
half  century ;  until  within  that  time,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Crookneck,  the  pumpkins,  yellow  and  black,  or  "  nig- 
ger," were  the  only  varieties  cultivated.  Though  the  ap- 
petite for  squash  appears  to  be  in  a  considerable  degree  a 
matter  of  education,  yet  it  is  becoming  more  and  more 
popular  in  the  vicinity  of  the  large  cities  of  the  North, 
where  among  vegetables,  it  now  ranks  next  to  the  potato. 
3 


4  SQUASHES,   HOW   TO    GKOW  THEM,    ETC. 

WHAT    IS    A    SQUASH? 

In  many  parts  of  the  South  and  West,  where  the  fall 
and  winter  squashes  are  not  much  cultivated,  the  term 
"  Pumpkin "  is  used  for  all  the  running  varieties  of  the 
squash  or  pumpkin  family,  with  the  exception  of  the 
"  Cushaw  "  class,  which  includes  varieties  that  are  closely 
allied  to  the  Crookneck.  To  clearly  define  what  is  meant  by 
the  word  squash  in  contradistinction  from  the  word  pump- 
kin, as  used  among  market-men,  is  no  very  easy  matter,  as  all 
the  varieties,  with  the  exception  of  the  Crooknecks,  easily 
intercross  with  each  other,  and  in  the  recently  introduced 
Yokohama,  I  have  reason  to  believe  we  have  found  the 
connecting  link  between  the  Crooknecks  and  other  squashes, 
thus  destroying  the  reputation  which  the  Crooknecks  had 
hitherto  enjoyed  of  being  the  squashes  of  the  squash  fam- 
ily. Grouping  all  the  running  varieties  together,  we  ex- 
press the  marketman's  idea  of  a  squash,  as  distinguished 
from  a  pumpkin,  when  we  say  that  all  varieties  having 
soft  or  fleshy  stems,  either  with  or  without  a  shell,  and  all 
varieties  having  a  hard,  woody  stem,  and  without  a  shell, 
are  squashes ;  while  all  having  a  hard  stem  and  a  shell 
the  flesh  of  which  is  not  bitter,  are  pumpkins ;  and  all  of 
this  latter  class,  the  flesh  of  which  contains  a  bitter  prin- 
ciple, are  gourds.  In  a  more  general  classification,  all  va- 
rieties having  a  hard  shell,  are  gourds,  and  those  without 
a  shell,  are  squashes.  I  had  an  amusing  instance  under  this 
system  of  classification  in  a  lot  of  seed,  ordered  from  France 
as  "  gourds ;"  on  examining  them,  I  found  that  several  of 
the  kinds  were  varieties  of  our  table  squashes.  Making  a 
separate  classification  of  the  summer  varieties,  I  define 
such  to  be  squashes,  in  contradistinction  from  gourds,  as 
are  eatable  at  any  period  of  their  growth.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  distinctions  I  make  are  more  commercial  than 
strictly  scientific.  What  I  aim  at,  is,  to  so  define  squashes, 
pumpkins,  and  gourds,  that  experienced  market-men,  seed- 


SQUASHES,   HOW   TO   GROW   THEM,    ETC.  5 

men,  and  new  beginners,  may  meet  on  common  ground, 
and  clearly  understand  each,  other  when  using  these  terms. 
In  passing,  I  remark,  that  gourds  are  far  more  prolific 
than  either  squashes  or  pumpkins ;  in  some  instances  more 
than  two  score  having  been  grown  on  a  single  vine. 

SELECTING    THE    SOIL. 

All  of  the  family  thrive  best,  other  things  equal,  in  a 
warm  soil,  which  is  a  soil  through  which  the  roots  can 
easily  find  their  way.  The  Hubbard  squash  appears  to 
attain  to  its  highest  development  in  regard  to  both  yield 
and  quality  in  a  soil,  that,  in  addition  to  being  warm,  is 
also  a  strong  soil.  I  would  not  advise  planting  in  a  clay 
soil,  unless  it  be  possible  by  thorough  draining  and  high 
manuring,  (for  this  purpose,  long  manure  is  better  than 
fermented,)  to  make  such  soil  light  and  porous.  A  drained 
meadow  will  often  yield  enormous  squashes,  if  well  ma- 
nured, but  they  are  apt  to  be  very  porous  in  their  structure, 
of  poor  quality,  and  poor  keepers. 

Some  years  since  I  planted  a  piece  of  rich,  black 
meadow  to  Hubbards,  after  manuring  liberally  in  the  hills. 
The  result  wras  a  tremendous  growth  of  vine,  some  of 
the  leaves  measuring  twenty  inches  in  diameter,  while  the 
ends  of  the  runners,  in  their  great  vigor,  lifted  themselves 
by  thousands  two  and  three  feet  above  the  surface,  and 
with  their  blunt,  arched  extremities,  looked  like  a  myriad 
of  huge-winged  serpents  running  a  race.  The  squashes 
were  of  a  light  green  color,  very  large  and  showy,  but, 
when  gathered,  proved  light  in  the  handling,  very  porous 
in  structure,  cutting  like  punk,  were  very  poor  keepers, 
and  coarse  and  watery  in  quality.  Though  such  meadows 
are  thoroughly  underdrained,  the  squashes  grown  on  them 
are  light  in  proportion  to  their  size,  (which  always  insures 
poor  quality  and  poor  keeping,)  unless  the  meadows  have 
had  abundance  of  sand  and  loam  worked  into  them,  thus 


6  SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GEOW   THEM,    ETC. 

adding  the  proper  proportion  of  silica  to  the  vegetable 
humus.  Some  years  ago,  when  the  Marrow  squash  was  a 
novelty,  bringing  about  $4.00  a  hundred  pounds,  one  of 
my  townsmen  raised  some  acres  on  a  piece  of  drained 
meadow.  Only  a  portion  of  the  meadow  had  received  a 
good  dressing  of  sand ;  here  the  squashes  were  of  about 
the  ordinary  size,  while  on  the  remainder  they  grew  "  as 
big  as  barrels."  He  traded  a  part  of  the  crop  with  a 
peddler  for  a  lot  of  swine.  When  the  peddler  called  for  the 
squashes,  agreeable  to  instructions,  the  father  being  absent 
from  town,  his  son  showed  him  the  smaller  sized  lot,  say- 
ing that  he  had  received  directions  to  deliver  them,  as 
they  were  the  best  of  the  crop.  But  the  peddler  declared 
that,  as  he  had  supplied  good  pigs,  he  was  entitled  to  good 
squashes,  and  would  be  put  off  with  no  trash.  He  there- 
fore loaded  his  wagons  with  the  "  big  as  a  barrel "  lot,  and 
left  for  home.  Before  many  days  a  friend  called,  and, 
with  a  laugh,  asked  if  he  had  heard  of  the  result  of  the 
squash  investment.  "  There  was'nt  enough  substance  in 
them  to  hold  together  until  he  got  home';  they  were  car- 
ried to  market  in  a  few  days,  and  two  tons  out  of  five 
were  rotten."  If  the  soil  be  wet  and  cold,  the  growth  of 
the  vine  is  much  retarded,  and  not  only  is  the  crop  much 
lessened  in  size  and  weight,  but  at  times  this  singular  re- 
sult is  seen — the  squash  loses  its  normal  form.  I  have 
seen  a  crop  of  Hubbards  grown  under  such  circumstances, 
all  of  which  were  nearly  flat  at  each  end,  instead  of  hav- 
ing the  elongations  that  belong  to  the  normal  form. 

When  two  soils  of  equal  natural  strength,  but  one  of 
them  being  more  gravelly  in  its  structure,  are  heavily  and 
equally  manured,  I  have  noticed,  in  several  instances,  that 
the  more  gravelly  piece  will  give  more  squashes  and  less 
vine  than  the  others. 

Unlike  some  varieties  of  melons  and  cucumbers,  squashes 
will  do  finely  on  freshly  broken  sod,  which  has  the  ad- 
vantage (a  great  one  in  many  localities)  of  being  less  in- 


SQUASHES,    HOW  TO   GEOW   THEM,    ETC.  7 

fested  with  bugs,  than  old  tillage  soil.  The  practice  of 
digging  holes  a  foot  or  two  in  diameter  in  patches  of  turf 
in  waste  places,  around  hedges,  or  in  corners  of  fields, 
which,  after  filling  with  manure,  are  planted  to  squashes,  is 
but  a  waste  of  time ;  the  result  is,  a  growth  of  vine  of  a 
few  feet  in  length,  the  setting  of  squashes,  and  then  both 
squash  and  vine  become  checked  in  their  growth,  as  the 
roots  of  the  vine  make  vain  efforts  to  penetrate  a  dense 
mass  of  hungry  grass  roots  in  search  of  food,  the  leaves 
gradually  turn  yellow,  and  before  you  know  it,  have 
entirely  disappeared.  By  pulling  on  a  dead  vine,  you 
drag  out  a  half  grown  squash  hidden  among  the  grass. 

If  the  sod  abounds  in  the  pest  known  by  various  names, 
as  witch,  twitch,  or  quack  grass,  there  is  some  danger  that 
the  grass  will  overrun  the  vines.  If  the  grass  has  not 
been  quite  thoroughly  torn  up  by  the  cultivator  before 
the  vines  begin  to  run,  better  plow  up  at  once,  as  the  crop 
will  be  nearly  ~a  failure.  Hoeing  up  and  hand  pulling  the 
grass  will  practically  amount  to  nothing  under  such  cir- 
cumstances, as  I  once  learned  to  my  sorrow.  If  the  sod 
is  not  very  badly  run  to  twitch,  there  is  but  little  clanger, 
provided  the  cultivator  is  faithfully  used  from  the  time 
the  vines  appear  above  ground  until  the  runners  begin 
to  push. 

THE    MANURE. 

The  squash  vine  is  a  rank  feeder.  Night  soil,  barn  ma- 
nure, wood  ashes,  guano,  muscle  mud,  hen  manure,  super- 
phosphate of  lime,  pig  manure,  sheep  manure,  fish  guano, 
fish  waste — either  of  these  alone,  or  in  compost,  is  greedily 
devoured  by  this  miscellaneous  feeder.  The  great  error 
in  the  cultivating  of  the  squash  is  to  starve  it.  By  many 
cultivators,  when  every  other  crop  has  had  its  share,  and 
the  manure  heap  has  been  used  up,  a  piece  of  sod  is  broken 
for  the  squash  patch,  about  the  only  food  depended  on 


8  SQUASHES,   HOW  TO   GROW  THEM,   ETC. 

for  the  crop  being  what  it  can  gather  from  the  decay  of 
the  fresh  turned  sod.  Under  such  treatment,  the  cnyp  is 
small,  the  squashes  small,  and  the  general  result  unsatis- 
factory. Another  error  of  the  opposite  extreme  is  one 
often  committed  by  market  gardeners,  who  have  learned 
that  no  paying  crop  can  be  grown  without  liberal  feeding 
— who  give  all  the  food  necessary,  but  do  not  allow  suf- 
ficient room  for  the  extra  growth  of  vines  under  such  cul- 
ture. Of  this  latter  error  I  propose  to  treat  under  the 
head  of  "Planting  the  Seed." 

Night  soil  should  be  used,  mixed  with  muck  and  other 
manures,  in  the  form  of  a  compost.  It  may,  however,  be 
applied  fresh,  directly  to  the  hill,  if  sufficient  care  is  taken 
to  mix  it  thoroughly  with  the  soil.  Some  years  ago,  I 
broke  up  a  piece  of  land  in  the  spring  of  the  year  for 
squashes,  and  the  location  being  difficult  of  access,  I  used 
night  soil  from  a  vault  on  the  premises,  pouring  about  two 
bushels  into  each  hill.  After  we  had  finished  manuring,  I 
sent  my  hired  man,  stout  Jim  Lane,  around  with  his  hoe 
to  mix  it  thoroughly  with  the  soil  in  the  hills.  When 
Jim  came  back,  saying  the  thing  had  been  thoroughly 
done,  I  send  him  around  a  second  time,  to  give  it  another 
mixing  up,  and,  on  his  return,  sent  him  around  the  third 
time,  though  the  old  fellow  assured  me  that  it  couldn't  be 
improved  on,  and  I  had  no  doubt  he  had  done  his  work 
well  each  time,  but,  with  two  bushels  of  fresh  night  soil 
in  each,  I  knew  that  all  the  danger  lay  in  one  direction. 
The  result  was,  the  vines  came  up  a  rich,  dark-green,  and 
took  right  hold  of  their  food. 

With  the  exception  of  barn  manure,  it  is  necessary  that 
each  of  the  manures  mentioned  above  should  be  well 
mixed  in  the  soil  when  used  in  the  hill.  When  wood 
ashes  are  used,  they  should  not  be  mixed  with  other  manure, 
until  just  as  it  is  applied,  as  this  would  injure  the  value  of 
the  manure,  by  setting  free  the  ammonia.  When  I  have 
used  ashes  in  connection  with  Peruvian  guano,  I  have 


SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GEOW   THEM,    ETC.  9 

been  in  the  habit  of  putting  layer  with  layer  in  a  wheel- 
barrow, hurrying  it  to  the  hills,  and  then  covering  it  im- 
mediately with  soil.  Even  with  all  possible  hurrying  of 
matters,  the  strong,  pungent  smell  of  the  escaping  am- 
monia could  be  readily  detected. 

Wood  ashes,  mixed  with  fresh  night  soil  in  the  hill, 
is  considerably  worse  than  nothing.  Some  years  ago, 
aiming  to  grow  some  extra  large  specimens,  I  selected  a 
favorable  location,  opened  several  large  hills,  and  poured 
into  each  about  a  couple  of  bushels  of  night  soil.  Into 
this  I  stirred  a  liberal  quantity  of  wood  ashes,  acting  on 
the  theory  that  its  alkaline  properties  would  serve  as  a 
corrective  of  the  rank  crudeness  of  the  night  soil.  I  pull- 
ed the  earth  over  the  hills,  and  planted  my  seed.  The 
seed  vegetated,  but  the  young  plants  soon  came  to  a  stand 
still.  I  applied  a  little  fresh  soil  to  the  roots,  thinking  the 
manure  below  might  be  too  strong  for  the  young  rootlets 
to  absorb.  Still,  there  was  no  growth ;  soon  the  leaves 
turned  yellow,  and  the  plants  died.  I  opened  one  hill  to 
find  the  cause,  and  there  I  found  cause  enough  in  the 
presence  of  a  mass  having  about  the  size  and  appearance 
of  an  ordinary  grindstone ;  the  ashes  and  night  soil  in 
combination  had  made  a  hard  cement,  and  the  entire  con- 
tents of  each  hill  could  be  rolled  out  in  one  cake. 

HOW   MUCH    MANURE? 

Those  who,  under  the  stimulus  of  a  city  market,  follow 
market  gardening,  soon  learn  one  truth  that  may  be  set 
down  as  an  axiom  for  successful  gardening,  viz. :  that 
other  things  equal,  it  is  the'last  cord  of  manure  that  gives 
the  profits.  There  is  but  very  little  danger  of  giving  too 
much  manure  to  your  squash  ground,  provided  the  hills 
are  made  at  a  proper  distance  apart,  and  the  vines  are  not 
too  numerous. 

No  prudent  man  will  plant  squashes  with  less  than  four 
1* 


10  SQUASHES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC. 

cords  of  barn  manure,  or  its  equivalent,  to  the  acre ;  this 
is  the  minimum — when  squashes  are  raised  as  a  profitable 
crop,  from  six  to  twenty  cords  of  good  manure  per  acre 
are  used. 

Twenty  cords  to  the  acre  will,  I  doubt  not,  sound  like 
a  large  story  to  many  readers,  and  it  is  a  large  quantity, 
even  for  the  high  culture  required  for  successful  market 
gardening,  but  I  have  seen  that  quantity  applied,  and 
once,  in  my  own  practice,  applied  thirty-five  cords  to  a 
little  over  two  acres  of  squash  land,  where  the  soil  had 
been  over-cropped,  (or  rather  under-fed,)  for  many  years 
before  I  came  into  possession  of  it.  Let  us  look  a  moment 
into  that  axiom — "the  profits  come  out  of  the  last  cord 
of  manure."  With  four  cords  of  good  barn  manure  to 
the  acre,  on  good  soil,  the  average  yield  would  be  about 
four  tons  of  Hubbard  squashes ;  with  six  cords  of  manure, 
the  average  yield  would  be  about  six  tons ;  with  eight 
cords,  the  yield  would  be  from  seven  to  eight  tons.  These 
are  real  results,  that  I  have  had  in  my  own  experience. 
Here  it  will  be  seen  that  we  gain  about  a  ton  of 
squashes  with  each  extra  cord  of  manure ;  in  other  words, 
by  investing  eight  or  ten  dollars,  we  treble  or  quadruple 
our  money  in  six  month's  time — quite  a  profitable  bank 
of  deposit  is  the  manure  heap !  Not  only  is  the  crop 
heavier,  but  the  squashes  are  larger,  and,  therefore,  far 
more  marketable  and,  usually,  at  a  higher  figure,  often 
readily  bringing  $5  or  $10  a  ton  advance  in  the  market. 
ISTor  is  this  all;  the  virtues  of  the  manure  are  not  ex- 
hausted the  first  season ;  but  the  ground  is  left  in  higher 
condition  for  the  crops  of  the  next  season.  Again,  let  it 
be  noted  that  the  cost  of  cultivation  of  a  poor  crop  is  just 
as  great  as  the  cultivation  of  a  large  one,  while  the  promise 
of  a  large  crop  is  a  great  cheer  amid  the  labor  of  caring 
for  it.  The  strongest  argument  for  the  liberal  manur- 
ing of  this  and  all  other  crops  is,  that  a  certain  portion 
of  the  crop  but  pays  for  the  cost  of  producing  it,  and 


SQUASHES,   HOW  TO   GROW  THEM,   ETC.  11 

that  the  profits  can  only  come  after  the  cost  of  production 
is  paid. 

The  cost  of  producing  an  acre  of  squashes,  independent 
of  the  cost  of  the  manure,  will  be : 

Plowing ...  .$  6.00 

Distributing  Manure 5.00 

Cultivating  in  Manure 3.00 

Seed 4.00 

Mixing  Manure  in  Hills 2.00 

Planting  Seed 1.00 

Three  Cultivatings  in  course  of  season 5.25 

Two  Hoeings. .   3.00 

Lime  and  Liming 1.50 

Hand-weeding  of  large,   scattered  Weeds,   after   Kunners  have 

started  off 1.00 

Gathering  of  Crop  into  Heaps  ready  for  Carting 2.00 

Interest  on  Land * 9.00 

Wear  and  Tear,  and  Incidentals 2.00 

Total,  exclusive  of  Manure $44.75 

Add  cost  of  four  Cords  of  Manure,  at  $8.00,  landed  in  Field 32.00 

Cost  of  Guano,  or  some  equivalent,  to  mix  in  Hills 5.00 

Total  cost  of  Crop  whenfour  Cords  of  Manure  are  used  per  Acre.  .$81.75 

Now,  as  we  stated  above,  the  average  yield  of  Hubbard 
squashes,  under  such  manuring,  would  be  about  four  tons. 
The  average  price  of  Hubbard  squashes  in  the  Boston 
markets,  for  the  past  four  years,  of  such  a  size  as  four 
cords  of  manure  to  the  acre  would  produce,  has  been  about 
$25  per  ton.  At  this  rate,  the  returns  (not  deducting 
the  cost  of  marketing)  per  acre  would  be  $100,  from  which 
deducting  the  cost  of  production,  $81.75,  we  have  $18.25 
as  the  profits  on  the  acre. 

If,  now,  by  adding  two  cords  more  of  manure,  or  $16.00, 
to  the  cost  of  production,  we  obtain  two  tons  more 
squashes,  then  the  income  is  increased  $50,  (this  supposes 
that  we  get  but  the  same  price  per  ton,  but,  in  fact,  I  get 
from  |5  to  £10  more  per  ton  for  such  squashes,)  and  we 
have  a  profit  of  $52.25.  The  two  cords  of  manure  extra 
have  nearly  trebled  the  profits ;   in  other  words,  by  ad- 


12  SQUASHES,    HOW  TO    GROW   THEM,   ETC. 

ding  about  one-six  to  the  cost  of  production,  Ave  treble 
the  profits.  Or,  again,  to  give  a  commercial  look  to  the 
matter,  for  every  dollar  invested  in  manure  in  May,  in 
October,  or  five  months,  we  receive  a  return  of  three  dol- 
lars and  an  eighth.  The  returns  have  proved  in  the  same 
proportion  up  to  eight  cords,  and  at  times  up  to  ten  cords, 
to  the  acre.  These  statements  are  not  visionary ;  they 
are  drawn  directly  from  practical  experience^  and  can  be 
corroborated  by  any  farmer  who  has  tried  liberal  manur- 
ing. Catch  a  farmer  of  that  class  going  backwards,  and 
putting  less  and  less  manure  on  his  grounds,  what  a 
phenomenon  he  would  be  !  No  ;  the  progress  of  all  enter- 
prising farmers  is  in  one  direction.  By  extra  manuring  the 
probabilities  of  receiving  paying  returns,  are  far  greater  in 
agricultural  than  in  commercial  life,  as  figures  will  readily 
show,  though  the  popular  belief  is  directly  the  contrary. 

PREPARING   AND   APPLYING  THE    MANURE. 

As  a  general  rule  in  farming,  the  value  of  manures  that 
are  good  for  any  crop,  is  increased  by  mixing  them  to- 
gether, making  what  is  called  a  compost.  Ashes  and 
common  lime  are  an  exception  to  this  rule ;  each  of  them 
sets  free  the  ammonia,  (the  most  valuable  portion  of  any 
manure,)  and,  being  volatile,  it  escapes  into  the  atmos- 
phere. In  preparing  a  compost  for  squashes,  the  bottom 
of  the  heap  may  be  made  of  muck  that  has  been  acted  up- 
on by  the  frost,  sun,  and  rain  of  a  year,  if  practicable ;  if 
this  can  not  be  done,  let  it  at  least  be  got  out  the  fall 
previous,  that  it  may  be  disintegrated,  and,  in  a  measure, 
sweetened  by  the  winter's  frost.  In  the  course  of  the 
winter,  manure  from  the  barn-yard  may  be  hauled  upon  it. 
If  this  has  been  well  worked  by  hogs,  the  better.  Toward 
spring,  if  night-soil  can  be  poured  into  it,  the  richness  of 
the  heap  will  be  much  increased.  Sharp  sand  can  now  be 
thrown  over  the  heap,  and  about  as  soon  as  frost  breaks 


SQUASHES,    HOW   TO   GROW   THEM,    ETC.  13 

ground,  the  entire  mass  should  be  thrown  over  with  forks,* 
and  thoroughly  commingled,  all  coarse  lumps  broken 
up,  and  all  frozen  lumps  brought  to  the  outside  of  the 
pile.  As  soon  as  the  mass  begins  to  heat,  the  process 
should  be  repeated  once  or  twice,  until  it  is  made  as 
fine  and  as  thoroughly  mixed  together,  as  time  will  allow. 
The  sand  will  be  found  to  be  excellent  to  keep  the  manure 
finely  divided  and  light,  or  to  "  cut "  it,  as  farmers  say. 

In  applying  the  manure  for  this  or  other  crops,  many 
formers  use  all  the  manure  in  the  hill ;  some,  because  hav- 
ing but  little  to  use,  they  wish  to  get  it  as  near  the  plants 
as  possible,  while  others  seem  to  hold  the  theory,  that  a 
circle  of  three  or  four  feet  in  diameter  is  a  sufficient  area 
for  the  roots  of  squash  vines  to  travel  over  in  search  of 
food.  Where  all  the  manure  is  used  in  the  hill,  the  squash 
vines  push  over  the  ground  rapidly,  until  just  after  the 
setting  of  the  squashes,  when  they  lose  vigor,  the  squashes 
develop  but  slowly,  and  in  the  end  there  is  a  small  crop  of 
undersized  squashes,  for  the  roots,  having  meanwhile 
pushed  beyond  the  hills,  can  not  find  food  sufficient  to 
sustain  the  growth  of  the  vines.  The  roots  of  squash 
vines  increase  faster  than  is  generally  supposed.  There 
is  a  theory  that  the  roots  grow  to  the  same  length  as 
the  vines,  keeping  pace  with  them  in  their  growth. 
Whether  the  roots  grow  as  long,  or  longer,  than  the  vines, 
I  can  not  say,  but  when  the  runner  of  a  vine  had  pushed 
out  but  eighteen  inches,  I  found  the  root  over  three  feet 
in  length,  thus  proving  that  at  one  period  of  growth,  the 
root  increases  faster  than  the  vine.  This  spreading  of  the 
roots  through  the  soil  is  one  of  the  marvels  of  vegetable 
life.  I  remember  once  lifting  a  small  pile  of  litter  that 
was  about  six  inches  deep,  some  dozen  feet  distant  from 
a  squash  hill,  when  I  saw  what  appeared  to  be  a  fine 
mist  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  but  upon  examination 
myriads  of  fine  rootlets  were  seen,  that  were  doubtless 
feeding  on  the  decaying  vegetable  matter.     Any  person 


14  SQUASHES,   HOW   TO   GEOW   THEM,    ETC. 

who  will  examine  a  squash  vine  of  the  running  sorts,  after 
it  has  set  its  fruit,  will  find  roots  pushed  down  into  the 
earth  at  each  joint ;  and  though  these  may  be  in  part  de- 
signed by  the  Creator  to  steady  the  vine,  there  can  be  but 
little  doubt  but  that  they  are  designed  also  to  feed  the 
long  runners.  And  this  is  proved  by  the  fact,  that  if  the 
connection  of  the  vine  with  the  main  root  be  severed, 
while  these  subordinate  roots  remain  uninjured,  it  will  still 
maintain  a  degree  of  vigor.  Such  facts  as  these  sweep 
all  theories  of  hill-manuring  by  the  board,  for  if  the  roots 
travel  beyond  the  hill  in  search  of  food,  there  a  wise  cul- 
tivator will  put  food  for  them.  My  usual  practice  is  this : 
to  distribute  all  the  manure  from  my  compost  heap  over 
the  field,  after  the  first  plowing,  and  before  cultivating  or 
harrowing.  This  is  thoroughly  worked  under  (and  but 
just  under),  by  a  small  one-horse  plow,  driven  at  right 
angles  with  the  furrows,  after  which  I  follow  with  the  culti- 
vator, aiming  to  have  everything  as  thoroughly  fined  up  as 
possible.  If  time  presses,  I  dispense  with  the  small  plowT,  and 
depend  wholly  on  the  cultivator  and  harrow  to  get  my  ma- 
nure under  the  surface.  After  the  manure  is  well  worked 
under,  the  hills  or  drills  are  marked  off  by  dragging  a  chain 
.over  the  surface,  the  first  line  being  made  straight  by  set- 
ting up  two  poles  ahead,  and  keeping  them  in  line  while 
walking;  afterward  the  lines  can  be  kept  conveniently 
straight  by  carrying  a  pole  of  the  same  length  as  the  dis- 
tance desired  between  the  hills,  and  using  it  occasionally 
as  a  guide.  After  the  field  is  thus  chained  out  in  one 
direction,  it  is  crossed  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  hills 
are  marked  out  by  the  crossing  of  the  lines  made  by  the 
chain.  If  the  surface  is  free  from  large  rocks,  the  hills  can 
be  marked  out  by  running  two  sets  of  furrows,  the  hills 
being  made  where  they  cross  each  other  at  right  angles. 

In  the  hills  I  work  in  my  manure,  avoiding  all  stable 
dung,  or  any  animal  manure,  as  this  is  liable  to  contain 
seed,  and  to  one  who  raises  squashes  for  seed  purposes, 


SQUASHES,   HOW   TO   GROW   THEM,    ETC.  15 

this  is  quite  a  serious  objection,  for,  in  fact,  I  have  found 
it  almost  impossible  to  keep  squashes  pure,  where  animal 
manure  is  used  in  the  hill.  I  manure  in  the  hill,  or  drill, 
with  the  most  highly  concentrated  manures  to  be  pro- 
cured, such  as  guano,  superphosphate  of  lime,  or  fish  gu- 
ano. The  reason  for  using  highly  stimulating  manure  in 
the  hill  is,  to. give  the  plants  a  quick  start  when  young, 
that  they  may  grow  beyond  injury  from  the  ravages  of 
the  striped  bug. 

There  is  danger  in  using  highly  concentrated  manures  in 
the  hill,  that  the  roots  of  the  young  plants  be  destroyed 
— "  burned  "  is  the  farmer's  phrase ;  to  prevent  this,  they 
should  be  most  thoroughly  stirred  in  with  the  soil.  My 
practice  is,  to  take  such  manure  in  a  wooden  bucket,  and 
passing  from  hill  to  hill,  scatter,  if  phosphates,  as  much  as 
I  can  take  up  in  a  half  closed  hand ;  if  Peruvian  guano, 
about  half  as  much,  over  a  circle  of  about  two  feet  in  di- 
ameter. A  man  follows  immediately  after  with  a  six-tined 
fork;  he  is  directed  to  turn  it  just  under  the  surface,  and 
then  draw  his  fork  across  the  hill  three  times,  and  again 
three  times  at  right  angles  with  the  first  direction,  ending 
with  planting  the  fork  in  the  middle  of  the  hill,  and  giving 
it  a  twist  around.  I  am  thus  particular  in  my  directions, 
because  day  laborers  seldom  realize  the  corrosive  effects 
of  these  highly  concentrated  fertilizers.  After  my  man, 
a  boy  follows  to  plant  the  seed ;  he  sweeps  a  circle  with 
his  finger  around  each  hill,  as  he  finishes  planting. 

After  the  vines  have  got  so  far  along  as  to  show  their 
runners,  I  top  dress  the  surface  with  hen  manure,  or  some 
of  the  special  manures  above  mentioned,  and  immediately 
follow  with  the  cultivator. 

It  will  be  perceived  that  my  system  of  manuring  is 
based  upon  the  theory  that  vines  pi-efer  their  food  near 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  I  draw  this  inference  from  the 
fact,  that  vines  are  great  lovers  of  heat,  being  quite  sen- 
sitive to  changes  of  temperature,  and  also  from  tracing 


16  SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GROW   THEM,    ETC. 

roots,  and  finding  under  the  old  system  of  deep  manuring, 
that  they  would,  at  first  starting,  run  but  an  inch  or  two 
below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  when  they  would  spread 
out  horizontally,  and  stretch  on  for  some  feet  at  a  very 
uniform  distance  below  the  surface.  Again,  I  find  my 
crops  very  satisfactory  under  this  system  of  manuring, 
and  for  the  past  four  years  have  cultivated  all  my  crop 
(four  to  seven  acres  annually),  on  this  plan.  My  friends 
will  note  that  I  reduce  my  manure  very  fine,  and  mix  it 
very  thoroughly  with  the  soil.     My  soil  is  a  strong  loam. 

PREPARING    THE    HILLS. 

The  system  almost  universally  advised  and  pursued  in 
preparing  the  hills  for  planting,  is  to  throw  out  the  earth 
from  within  a  circle  of  from  two  and  a  half  to  four  feet  in 
diameter,  and  from  six  inches  to  a  foot  in  depth,  oftentimes 
quarrying  out  rocks  and  digging  into  the  hard-pan  to  get 
the  standard  depth.  Then  fill  in  with  manure,  and  cover  this 
with  earth,  raising  a  low  mound  in  the  form  of  a  trun- 
cated cone  about  six  inches  above  the  surface.  On  this 
mound  the  seed  are  planted.  Where  the  land  is  freshly 
turned  sod,  the  hills  are  usually  made  by  cutting  a  hole 
of  the  usual  diameter  in  the  sod  with  a  sharp  spade  or 
axe.  In  my  own  practice,  I  have  given  up  this  method  for 
years.  The  plan  of  excavating  a  hole,  and  putting  in  it 
all,  or  about  all,  the  manure  for  the  crop,  appears  to 
be  founded  on  the  theory  that  the  roots  will  confine  them- 
selves to  the  area — an  idea  entirely  erroneous,  as  we  have 
already  shown.  Quarrying  into  the  hard-pan  and  putting 
manure  down  to  such  cold  depths,  is  inviting  the  vine  to 
violate  its  instinctive  love  of  heat.  Again,  this  system 
involves  a  great  deal  of  labor,  particularly  when  sod  land 
is  planted,  and  on  these  latter  the  pieces  of  sod  taken  out 
of  the  hills  remain  nuisances  over  the  surface  of  the  field, 
either  clogging  the  cultivator,  or  being  knocked  against 


SQUASHES,   HOW  TO    GROW   THEM,    ETC.  17 

the  young  vines.  Let  any  farmer  try  the  plan  of  prepar- 
ing his  hills  as  I  have  detailed  above,  and  I  will  guaran- 
tee that  he  will  not  again  return  to  the  present  system. 
If  bam  manure  is  to  be  used  in  the  hills,  let  them  be 
made  saucer  shape,  broad  and  shallow.  In  preparing 
freshly  broken  sod,  I  find  Share's  harrow  an  excellent 
implement,  as  it  will  pare  down  the  sod  to  an  inch  in 
thickness,  and  make  the  soil  as  easy  to  be  worked  as  old 
ground. 

HOW  FAR  APART  SHOULD  WE  HAVE  THE  HULLS,  AM) 
HOW   MANY   VINES    SHALL   WE   LEAVE    IN   THE    HILL? 

The  great  error  among  farmers  is  to  make  these  hills 
too  near  together,  and  leave  too  many  vines  in  each  hill. 
A  very  common  distance  for  Marrow  squashes  is  six  feet 
apart  each  way,  three  or  four  vines  being  left  in  each  hill. 

A  little  figuring  will  show  the  bad  policy  of  the  prac- 
tice. When  a  Marrow  squash  vine  grows  alone — and  it 
oftentimes  happens  that  one  comes  up  among  other  crops 
on  the  farm — it  will  mature  as  many  as  three  squashes,  and 
at  times  half  a  dozen  or  more.  Squashes  so  grown  are 
almost  always  fine  types  of  the  particular  variety.  Now, 
on  the  contrary,  when  the  hills  are  six  feet  apart,  with 
three  or  four  vines  to  a  hill,  the  vines  will  not  average 
one  squash  to  each.  I  have  been  amused  to  receive  the 
estimates  of  farmers  of  the  number  of  squashes  to  the 
vine  on  the  heaviest  crop  of  Marrows  they  ever  saw.  As 
often  as  not  the  reply  would  be  "three  to  the  vine." 
Now  an  acre  of  ground  planted  6x6  will  have  about 
1200  hills  to  the  acre ;  four  vines  to  the  hill  would  be 
4800  vines  to  the  acre.  The  present  variety  of  Autumnal 
Marrow  squashes  as  now  grown,  will  average  above  seven 
pounds  to  the  squash  ;  if  the  vines  produced  on  an  aver- 
age one  squash  apiece,  we  should  then  have  33,600  lbs.,  or 
over  seventeen  tons  to  the  acre  !  Whereas  the  largest  crop 
on  record,  as  fin-  as  I  am  aware,  of  this  variety  of  Marrow 
is  less  than  eleven  tons  to  the  acre.     From  such  figures 


18  SQUASHES,   HOW   TO   GEOW   THEM,    ETC. 

the  conclusion  stands  out  with  emphasis,  that  a  system 
that  taking  the  average  of  crops,  does  not  give  over  one 
squash  to  two  vines,  is  unnatural,  unfarmer-like,  and  un- 
profitable. 

The  shortest  distance,  where  the  hill  system  of  planting 
is  pursued,  should  not  he  less  than  8  feet  each  way  for 
Boston    Marrow    squash    and   other   running  varieties, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Hubbard,  Turban,  and  Yoko- 
hama,  which   are  ranker  growers,   and  should   not   be 
planted  nearer  than  nine  or  ten  feet  each  way.     The  hills 
for  the  Mammoth  varieties  should  be  twelve  or  more  feet 
apart  each  way.     At  these  distances  apart,  two  plants  m 
each  hill,  (the  vines  being  thinned  down  to  that  number 
when  the  runners  begin  to  start),  will  be  found  sufficient 
to  well  cover  the  ground.     Were  it  not  for  danger  from 
the  borer,  I  would  never  leave  more  than  one  vine  to  a 
hill,— putting  the  hills  in  each  case  proportionally  nearer. 
One  of  the  finest  crops  of  Turban  squashes  I  ever  raised, 
a  crop  that  took  the  county  premium  for  yield  that  year, 
was  raised  with  but  one  vine  to  the  hill,  and  the  crop  that 
took  our  county  premium  the  year  previous  was  grown 
with  two  vines  to  the  hill.     This  brings  us  to  the  discus- 
sion of  the  Drill  versus  Hill  system  of  planting.     On  the 
supposition  that  the  great  error  in  growing  squashes  has 
been  to  crowd  the  roots  too  much  together  below  ground, 
while  the  vines  were  crowded  too  much  together  above 
-round,  I  have  advocated,  and  to  some  extent  practised, 
the  Drill  system  of  planting— having  each  vine  entirely 
by  itself,  and  distributing  them  evenly  over  the  ground. 
Assuming  that  10  x  10  or  100  square  feet  is  sufficient  room 
for  the  plant,  on  the  Drill  system,  I  allow  7x7  or  about 
50  feet  for  one  plant.     In  planting  on  this  system,  the  field 
is  marked  out  as  if  for  hills,  the  lines  crossing  each  otner 
every  seven  feet.     In  planting  in  drills  I  put  three  seeds 
alono-  in  the  line,  and  when  the  plants  begin  to  show  run- 
ners^thin  to  one  plant.     By  the  drill  system,  in  addition 


SQUAsnES,  now  to  grow  them,  etc.  19 

to  the  advantages  above  claimed,  I  think  that  the  crop  is 
more  uniform  in  size,  and  the  squashes  are  better  propor- 
tioned in  their  forms  than  under  the  hill  system.  The 
vines  being  in  a  row,  instead  of  a  circle,  the  cultivator  can 
be  carried  nearer  to  them.  Most  of  my  land  is  very  un- 
even, otherwise  I  should  always  plant  in  drills  in  preference 
to  hills. 

PLANTING    THE    SEED. 

The  quantity  of  seed  per  acre  for  the  Marrow  and  Hub- 
bard varieties  is  set  by  practical  farmers  at  two  and  a 
half  pounds.  This  allows  for  liberal  planting  with  a  good 
surplus  for  after  use,  should  cold  or  wet  weather  rot  the 
seed,  or  insects  destroy  the  plants  that  first  appear.  Four 
seeds  in  the  hill  and  three  in  the  drill  is  sufficient.  The 
seed  should  not  be  put  in,  in  the  latitude  of  Boston,  earlier 
than  the  10th  of  May,  and  may  be  safely  sown  in  ordinary 
seasons  as  late  as  the  first  of  June,  and  success  is  some- 
times attained  with  seed  planted  on  rich,  warm  land  as 
late  as  the  twentieth  of  June.  A  part  and  sometimes  all 
of  the  seed  planted  as  early  as  the  10th  of  May  will 
rot  in  the  ground ;  yet  to  get  the  vines  along  early,  and 
thus  enable  them  to  survive  the  attacks  of  the  squash 
bugs,  farmers  oftentimes  take  this  risk.  If,  after  a  cold, 
wet  spell,  the  planter  mistrusts  the  seed  have  rotted  in 
the  ground,  let  him  scratch  away  the  earth  carefully  witli 
his  fingers  (it  is  infinitely  easier  to  put  a  seed  under  than 
to  find  it  again ! ),  and  if  the  seed  is  rotten,  it  will  readily 
show  it  when  pressed  between  the  thumb  and  finger. 

Seed  may  be  planted  either  by  using  the  hoe,  (dropping 
the  seed,  and  covering  with  the  hoe,)  or  each  one  may  be 
thrust  into  the  ground  with  the  thumb  and  finger.  If  the 
attempt  is  made  to  push  the  seed  under  by  the  finger 
alone,  it  is  frequently  left  too  near  the  surface,  as  the 
finger    is  very  apt    to  slip  by  it   unawares.      If  squir- 


20  SQUASHES,    HOW  TO    GKOW  THE1T,    ETC. 

rels  or  field  mice  abound,  it  will  "be  found  safer  to  plant 
with  the  hoe,  as  the  little  rascals  appear  to  have  a  rare 
faculty  for  smelling  out  the  very  spot  where  the  seeds  lie 
when  thrust  under  by  the  finger.  I  have  knowm  them  to 
begin  at  one  end  of  a  field  and  pass  from  hill  to  hill  in  a 
straight  line  across  the  field,  digging  out  every  seed  with 
unerring  accuracy.  Seed  opened  with  a  knife  and  rubbed 
with  arsenic  or  strichnine  and  scattered  in  the  paths  will 
generally  check  them.  Two  inches  is  ample  depth  in  any 
soil,  and  early  in  the  spring,  or  in  a  rather  wet  or  heavy 
soil,  the  seed  had  better  not  be  planted  more  than  from 
an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  depth. 

Seed  planted  on  upturned  sod  will  vegetate  sooner  and 
come  up  with  larger  rudimentary  leaves  than  that  planted 
in  rich,  old  ground ;  I  presume  that  this  is  because  sod 
land  lies  lighter  and  is  better  drained  and,  consequently, 
warmer  than  old  ground.  If,  when  the  rudimentary 
leaves  appear,  the  seed  shell  adheres  to  either  leaf,  it 
will  do  no  harm,  but  if  it  confines  both  leaves  together, 
it  should  be  removed,  if  it  can  be  done  without  injury. 
If  a  seed  pushes  but  a  single  rudimentary  leaf  above  the 
surface,  the  plant  rarely,  if  ever,  comes  to  anything.  If 
these  rudimentary  leaves  continue  to  increase  in  size,  but 
no  leaf  shows  itself  springing  from  between  them,  the 
plant  wall  come  to  nothing.  If  the  young  plants  come 
wTith  a  yellow  color,  it  proves  that  the  season  is  too  cold 
for  them  ;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  they  assume  a  very  dark, 
dull  green  color,  it  is  usually  because  the  manure  with 
which  the  young  rootlets  are  in  contact  is  too  strong  for 
them;  it  is  good  policy,  when  the  manure  proves  too 
strong,  to  carefully  remove  some  of  the  earth  around  the 
plants  with  the  finger,  and  with  the  finger  stir  in  a  little 
fresh  earth. 

If,  as  at  times  will  happen,  some  hills  are  entirely  desti- 
tute of  plants,  it  is  far  better  to  plant  them  with  seed 
than  to  transplant  surplus  vines  from  other  hills ;  true, 


SQUASHES,    HOW  TO    GEOW  THEM,    ETC.  21 

such  vines  sometimes  root  at  once,  but  if  checked  in  their 
growth  by  transplanting,  they  rarely  amount  to  anything 
in  the  end. 

This  is  one  of  the  great  conditions  of  success  in  squash 
culture,  to  have  the  vines  start  well  and  make  a  rapid 
growth  without  a  check.  Experience  has  frequently 
proved  that  late  planted  vines  will  oftentimes  ripen  their 
crops  as  early,  and  usually  bear  heavier  crops,  than  those 
planted  two  or  three  weeks  sooner. 

%     - 
HILL  CULTURE  AND  LEVEL  CULTURE. 

After  the  plants  appear,  it  is  customary  to  draw  earth 
around  them ;  this  is  a  good  practice  as  far  as  it  tends  to 
keep  them  from  being  broken  off  by  the  winds.  It  is 
also  an  almost  universal  custom  to  draw  up  the  earth  into 
a  mound  of  two  or  three  feet  in  diameter,  gradually  in- 
creasing the  height  of  it  with  each  hoeing  until  it  is  six 
inches  or  more  above  the  level  of  the  field.  I  consider 
the  labor  entirely  useless,  to  say  the  least,  and  have  con- 
fined my  own  practice  for  several  years  past  to  level  cul- 
ture, making  no  hills,  and  drawing  just  earth  enough 
home  to  each  plant  to  keep  it  from  being  swayed,  and 
thus  injured  by  the  wind. 

HOEING   AND    CULTIVATING. 

About  as  soon  as  the  plants  show  themselves  above  the 
surface,  the  Cultivator  should  be  set  running.  If  the 
hills  have  been  made  equi-distant  each  way,  the  surface 
can  be  cultivated  close  home  to  them  on  every  side,  leav- 
ing but  little  work  for  the  hoe.  In  no  department  of 
farming  is  the  superiority  of  the  Cultivator  over  the  com- 
mon hand-hoe  brought  out  in  stronger  contrast,  than  in 
working  the  large  open  areas  between  squash  hills.     I 


22       SQUASHES,  HOW  TO  GEOW  THEM,  ETC. 

would  rather  have  the  work  done  by  a  one-horse  Culti- 
vator with  a  boy  to  direct  the  horse  and  a  man  to  hold 
the  implement,  than  have  the  services  of  twenty  men 
with  hand  hoes ;  for  not  only  would  the  surface  be  gone 
over  in  equal  time,  but  the  ground  be  more  deeply  and 
more  thoroughly  stirred,  and  the  weeds  be  better  shaken  up 
and  turned  under  than  would  be  possible  with  hoe  cul- 
ture. The  cultivator  should  be  used  as  often  as  the 
weeds  start,  and  whenever  the  surface  appears  hard,  the 
object  being  two-fold,  to  eradicate  weeds  and  keep  the 
surface  light  and  mellow.  If  witch  grass  abounds,  the 
Cultivator  must  be  freely  used,  particularly  when  the 
surface  is  hot  and  dry,  that  the  vitality  of  the  freshly 
torn  roots  may  be  destroyed.  It  is  not  well  to  leave 
the  soil  unstirred  until  weeds  have  attained  to  some 
size,  as  such  are  very  apt  to  re-root.  If  the  Cultivator 
is  used  while  the  weeds  are  small,  it  can  be  spread 
open  to  its  utmost  capacity.  It  is  always  well  to  have 
one  course  of  the  Cultivator  half  overlap  the  preceding 

course. 

The  last,  and  one  of  the  most  critical,  periods  when 
the  Cultivator  is  needed,  is  just  previous  to  the  push- 
ing out  of  the  runners  over  the  surface  of  the  field. 
The  vines  are  then  growing  rapidly,  (I  have  found  that 
the  large  varieties,  by  actual  measurement,  grow  as 
much  as  fourteen  inches  in  forty-eight  hours),  and  if  spec- 
ial care  is  not  exercised,  the  runners  will  push  so  far 
as  to  prevent  the  final  use  of  the  Cultivator.  The  re- 
sult will  be  a  very  weedy  field  the  remainder  of  the 
season.  I  have  sometimes  practised,  when  caught  in 
this  way,  breaking  the  hold  of  the  tendrils  and  turning 
aside  with  the  hand  such  runners  as  had  got  so  far 
from  the  hills  as  to  be  in  the  way  of  the  Cultivator; 
but  I  have  observed  that  where  the  tendrils  are  broken 
from  whatever  they  have  naturally  clung  to,  as  often  as 
not  the  vines   are   injured   so  much   by  the   wind  that 


SQUASHES,    HOW   TO   GROW   THEM,    ETC.  23 

they  yield  little  or  nothing;  they  are  so  twisted  that 
they  are  often  completely  inverted;  and  though  the 
leaf  stalks  are  true  to  their  instincts,  and  bring  them- 
selves perpendicular  to  the  surface,  yet  in  doing  so,  the 
curve  they  make,  passing  under  the  vine,  lifts  it  a  little 
above  the  surface,  too  far  for  the  joint  r#ots  to  strike 
into  the  earth  to  hold  the  plant  in  place  and  nourish 
it.  It  is  a  bad  plan  ever  to  break  the  hold  of  the  ten- 
drils, and  as  a  general  rule  better  allow  the  large  weeds 
that  appear  towards  the  close  of  the  season  to  remain, 
than  to  pull  them  up  and  tear  them  out  from  among 
the  vines.  If  the  weeds  are  to  be  removed,  better  cut 
them  off  close  to  the  surface  and  leave  them.  A 
squash  crop  will  foul  the  land  at  the  very  best,  and  let  no 
one  plant  to  squashes  with  the  idea  that  the  frequent 
cultivation  allowed  early  in  the  season  will  tend  to  im- 
prove a  piece  of  ground  already  foul  with  weeds ;  for 
young  weeds  will  spring  up  as  soon  as  the  spread  of  the 
vines  prevents  the  farther  use  of  the  Cultivator,  and 
when  the  leaves  begin  to  thin  out,  at  the  close  of  the  sea- 
son, under  the  stimulant  of  the  sun  and  air,  these  soon  be- 
come mammoths  in  the  rich  soil.  When  we  consider  that 
climbing  appears  to  be  natural  to  the  squash  vine,  the  in- 
jury caused  by  breaking  the  hold  of  the  tendrils,  and  by 
the  moving  about  among  the  thick  net  work  of  vines  to 
do  this,  in  connection  with  the  fact  that  at  best  it  is  next 
to  impossible  to  keep  the  ground  in  clean  condition,  I 
question  whether,  as  a  general  rule,  it  is  not  better  to 
allow  these  late  and  large  weeds  to  remain  untouched,  and 
leave  the  clearing  of  the  ground  to  the  crop  of  the  next  year. 
When  the  area  of  ground  is  small,  and  very  clean  cul- 
ture is  desirable,  I  would  advise  the  driving  of  a  few 
stakes  among  the  vines  to  give  the  runners  a  hold  when 
they  first  push  out.  It  is  not  necessary  that  these  stakes 
should  protrude  more  than  one  or  two  inches  above  the 
surface. 


24  SQUASHES,   HOW   TO   GROW  TnEM,   ETC. 

Many  old  farmers  lay  down  the  rule  that  no  one  shall 
set  foot  on  the  squash  patch  after  the  vines  meet  between 
the  rows.  This  is  a  good  general  rule,  for  most  men 
tread  among  vines  as  ruthlessly  as  though  passing  among 
wire  cables,  crushing  them  under  foot  with  perfect  impu- 
nity. I  donH  think  I  ever  saw  a  farmer  pass  among  even 
his  own  vines  with  what  I  should  call  proper  care.  If 
necessary  to  pass  among  vines,  carry  a  short  stick  in  one 
hand  to  lift  the  leaves  to  see  where  the  foot  is  to  rest  be- 
fore planting  it. 

SQUASHES   WITH    OTHER    CROPS. 

In  the  vicinity  of  large  cities,  where  land,  manure,  and 
labor  are  costly— and  much  of  the  market  gardening  in 
the  vicinity  of  Boston,  New  York  and  Philadelphia  is 
on  land  worth  from  $500  to  $1,000  an  acre— farmers 
usually  grow  their  squashes  in  connection  with  other 
crops.  These  are  oftentimes  Peas  and  early  Cabbages. 
If  early  Peas  or  Cabbages  are  planted  in  rows  three  feet 
apart,  by  omitting  every  third  row,  and  planting  this 
to  squashes  at  the  usual  time,  the  crops  will  not  inter- 
fere with  each  other,  as  the  squashes  do  not  push  their 
runners  till  July,  after  the  pea  crop  has  been  marketed. 
With  Cabbage,  the  third  row  may  be  omitted,  or  every 
third  plant  in  the  third  row;  this  will  give  the  squashes 
9x9.  It  will  be  seen  that  squashes  can  be  raised  only 
with  the  earliest  varieties  of  Cabbage,  such  as  Early 
Wakefield,  Early  Oxheart,  Early  York,  Little  Pixie, 
Burnels,  King  of  Dwarfs,  that  have  been  started  in  a  hot 
bed.  The  plan  practised  occasionally  of  growing 
squashes  among  corn,  I  consider  a  bad  one.  It  is  very 
common  in  the  country  to  plant  at  the  second  hoeing  a 
couple  of  seed  of  the  Yellow  Field  Pumpkins  in  every 
third  or  fourth  hill,  and  the  yield  is  usually  satisfactory 
to  the  farmer ;  though  if  a  field  was  divided  in  two,  and 


SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GEOW   THEJI,    ETC.  25 

an  accurate  account  kept  of  the  income  from  each  half,  I 
am  inclined  to  believe  that  it  would  be  found  that  what 
was  gained  in  pumpkin  was  more  than  lost  in  corn. 
Squashes  are  more  delicate  in  their  habits  than  the  hardy, 
rough  vined  pumpkin,  and  the  result  of  attempting  to 
grow  them  with  corn  is  usually  a  small  crop  of  inferior 
specimens. 

SETTING   OF  THE  FRUIT. 

Soon  after  the  runners  have  put  forth,  blossom  buds 
will  begin  to  appear  at  the  junction  of  the  leaf-stalks  with 
the  vine.  As  the  buds  develop,  the  stems  will  develop 
also,  until  the  latter  grow  a  foot  or  more  long,  a  little 
longer  than  the  leaf-stalks.  The  blossom  now  opens,' 
and  we  have  a  large  yellow  flower,  several  inches  in  di- 
ameter, with  a  powerful  and  rich  fragrance,  very  similar 
to  that  of  a  magnolia.  This  flower  has  at  the  center  a 
yellow  cylinder,  about  an  inch,  in  length,  covered  with  fine 
yellow  pollen.  I  find  that  many  persons  look  for  their 
squashes  from  this  class  of  flowers.  Squash  vines  have 
the  sexes  distinct  in  each  flower,  being  what  botanists  call 
monoecious.  These  are  the  male  flowers,  and  from  their 
structure ''can  never  produce  squashes;  their  office  is 
wholly  to  supply  pollen  to  fertilize  the  pistillate  or  female 
flowers.  The  first  pistillate  or  female  blossom  rarely  ap- 
pears nearer  the  root  than  the  seventeenth  leaf,  or  farther 
than  the  twenty-third.  Instead  of  having  a  long  stem  to 
support  it,  this  flower  opens  close  down  to  the  juncture  of 
the  leaf-stalk  with  the  vine.  It  has  a  small  globular  for- 
mation beneath  it,  which  is  the  embryo  of  the  future 
squash.  If  the  structure  of  the  center  of  the  blossom  is 
examined,  it  will  be  found  to  differ  from  the  tall,  male 
flower,  in  having  the  central  cylinder  divided  at  the  top 
into  several  parts,  usually  four,  sometimes  six  in  number. 
These  are  what  botanists  call  the  pistils,  aud  it  is  necessary 
2 


26  SQUASHES,   HOW  TO   GEOW  THEM,   ETC. 

that  the  fine  yellow  dust  of  the  male  flower  should  touch 
these,  to  fertilize  them,  that  seed  may  be  produced,  and 
consequently  a  squash  grow — for  the  primary  reason  why 
a  squash  grows,  is,  to  protect  and  afford  nutriment  to  the 
seed,  the  use  of  it  as  food  being  a  secondary  matter.  This 
may  be  proved  by  so  confining  a  blossom,  that  no  pollen 
can  get  access  to  it,  when  the  blossom  will  usually  wilt, 
and  the  embryo  squash  turn  yellow  and  decay.  If  the  fe- 
male flower  be  broken  off  from  the  embryo  squash  before 
the  flower  has  come  to  full  maturity,  the  squash  will  de- 
cay. These  female  blossoms  are  so  covered  and  hidden  by 
the  tall  leaves,  that  it  is  evident  that  the  fertilizing  pollen 
must  be  conveyed  to  them  by  the  bees,  to  whom  the 
squash  field  appears  to  be  a  rich  harvest  field.  All  of  the 
crossing  or  mixing  of  squashes  is  caused  by  the  pollen 
from  the  male  flowers  of  one  variety  being  carried  by  the 
bees  to  the  female  flowers  of  another  variety.     Squashes 

ARE    CROSSED  OR   MIXED  IN    THEIR    SEED,  AND   NOT    IN    THE 

fruit.  Many  cultivators  are  in  error  on  this  point ;  they 
have  the  very  common  illustration  of  the  crossing  of  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  corn  in  their  mind,  where  the  mixture 
of  the  varieties  is  at  once  apparent  to  the  eye,  and  infer 
from  this,  that  the  mixture  between  different  varieties  of 
squashes  should  make  itself  visible  to  the  eye  the  same  sea- 
son it  occurs.  A  moment's  reflection  will  correct  this ; 
the  crossing  of  the  first  season  is  always  in  the  seed,  and 
for  this  reason  we  see  it  in  the  corn  the  first  season,  as  the 
seed  is  immediately  visible  to  the  eye,  while  the  various 
colors  of  the  different  varieties  also  aid  us  in  the  matter. 
With  squashes  the  crossing  is  likewise  in  the  seed,  and 
hence  can  not  be  seen  in  them,  until  the  seeds  are 
planted,  when  the  yield  will  show  the  impurity  of  their 
blood.  But,  though  the  crossing  can  not  be  seen  in  the 
squashes  themselves  the  first  season,  yet,  if  one  of  the  va- 
rieties planted  near  each  other,  has  seed  having  the  pecu- 
liar,  thick,  salmon-colored   coating,  so  characteristic  of 


SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GEOW   THEM,    ETC.  27 

some  of  the  South  American  varieties,  this  indication  of 
admixture  may  be  detected  "by  the  eye  the  first  season. 
The  parallelism  between  the  crossing  of  squashes  and  corn 
may  be  carried  further,  for  it  is  oftentimes  true  with  corn 
as  with  squashes,  that  there  is  a  mixing  of  varieties,  of 
which  no  indication  can  be  detected  in  the  seed  by  the  eye 
the  first  season,  which  a  second  season  will  develop — what 
was  before  an  eight-rowed  variety,  into  a  ten  or  twelve- 
rowed  sort,  or  dark  kernels  may  be  replaced  with  white 
ones,  and  by  numerous  similar  freaks,  bring  to  light  an 
admixture  of  varieties. 

It  is  of  considerable  practical  importance,  that  the  law 
of  admixture  should  be  clearly  understood,  that  the  risk, 
incidental  to  planting  seed  from  squashes  that  look  pure, 
should  be  generally  known  ;  for  it  will  be  seen  from  what 
I  have  written,  that  seed  taken  from  squashes  that  ex- 
ternally are  perfect  types  of  their  kinds,  may  yield  a 
patch,  where  every  one  may  show  marks  of  impurity. 
Again,  no  matter  how  many  varieties  are  planted  together, 
no  crossing  from  the  result  of  that  planting  will  be  seen 
in  the  external  shape,  color,  or  appearance  of  the  crop  the 
san'ie  season. 

To  have  squash  seed  pure,  the  squashes  from  which  they 
are  taken,  must  have  been  grown  isolated,  and  this  not 
only  one  season,  but  for  a  succession  of  seasons.  Should 
several  varieties  of  squashes  be  grown  together,  and  it  be 
desirable  to  keep  one  variety  pure,  it  can  be  done  by  pre- 
venting any  male  flowers  of  the  other  varieties  from  ma 
taring — no  easy  job,  as  those  who  have  tried  it  know.  The 
product  of  any  particular  blossom  may  be  kept  pure  under 
such  circumstances  by  covering  with  fine  muslin,  remov- 
ing it  only  to  fertilize  with  pollen  from  a  male  flower  of 
its  own  vine. 

The  location  of  the  female  blossom,  in  a  measure  cover- 
ed by  the  leaves,  and  low  down,  but  little  affected  by  the 
wind,  would  render  it  probable  that  it  depends  for  fertili- 


28  SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GROW   THEil,   ETC. 

zation  on  the  bees,  rather  than  on  the  wind;  and  the  fact 
(as  a  friend  who  has  tested  it,  informs  me)  that  if  only  a 
high  fence  intervenes  between  two  varieties,  the  admixture 
between  them  is  comparatively  small,  corroborates  this 
theory.  To  preserve  the  degree  of  purity  that  is  neces- 
sary in  raising  different  varieties,  requires  planting  at  dis- 
tances apart  varying  with  the  natural  aspect  of  the  coun- 
try ;  a  level  tract  requires  longer  distances  than  would 
be  necessary  in  an  undulating  country,  and  a  space  inter- 
vening abounding  in  flowers  is  a  better  protection 
than  an  equal  distance  where  flowers  are  less  numerous. 
The  object  is  to  get  the  pollen  removed  from  the  thighs 
or  bodies  of  the  bees,  or  have  it  covered  by  the  pollen  of 
other  flowers,  before  they  can  pass  from  a  field  of  one  va- 
riety of  squash  to  that  of  another.  My  own  practice  is,  to 
secure  the  planting  of  one  continuous  district  of  country 
with  the  same  variety  of  squash,  by  giving  to  farmers, 
whose  lands  are  near  my  own,  my  stock  seed  for  their  own  - 
planting.  Even  with  this  precaution  matters  will  have  to 
be  looked  after,  lest  after  all  promise  to  the  contrary,  greed 
can  not  master  moral  courage  sufficiently,  to  induce  theni^ 
to  pull  up  the  transient  vines  that  spring  up  from  the  ma- 
nure among  cabbages  or  potatoes.  Old  farmers  w7ill  pro- 
fess, from  the  appearance  of  the  calyx  end,  to  classify 
squashes  as  male  or  female ;  this  is  all  nonsense,  for,  as 
will  be  inferred  from  what  has  been  stated,  every  seed 
from  every  squash  contains  the  two  sexes  in  itself,  in  its 
capacity  to  produce  both  male  and  female  flowers. 

Squash  fields  usually  make  about  three  settings  of  fruit. 
I  do  not  mean  by  this  that  each  vine  makes  three  settings, 
but  that  this  is  usually  true  of  a  field  as  a  whole.  It  often 
happens,  that  most  of  one  of  their  settings,  usually  the 
second,  turn  yellow  and  rot,  after  many  of  the  squashes 
reach  the  size  of  goose  egg^.  This  is  very  apt  to  take 
place,  should  there  be  a  cold,  wet  spell  just  after  they 
have  set.     Sometimes  all  three  of  the  settings  will  grow, 


SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GROW  THElf,    ETC.  29 

and.  then  stories  of  great  crops  will  be  heard  of  in  the 
squash  districts.  When  a  young  Hubbard  squash  is  mak- 
ing a  fine  growth,  it  will  have  a  shining  green  appearance, 
as  though  just  varnished,  If  the  appearance  of  the  squash 
changes  to  a  dull  green  color,  the  days  of  that  squash  are 
numbered ;  it  will  soon  shrivel  and  decay. 

PINCHING   VINES. 

I  have  seen  a  vine  perfect  the  growth  of  a  squash  20  lbs. 
in  weight,  though  the  vine  was  cut  off  within  a  foot  of 
the  squash  when  it  had  reached  the  size  of  an  orange,  and 
another  squash  of  about  the  same  size  was  also  matured 
on  the  same  vine,  about  four  feet  nearer  the  root.  The 
vine  was  highly  manured,  and  grew  on  very  deep  and 
rather  moist  muck  and  loam.  I  can  not  yet  determine  the 
laws  which  govern  the  art  of  pruning  vines.  I  have  had 
some,  the  young  squashes  of  which  appeared  to  do  finely 
after  the  extremities  of  the  runners  were  nipped  at  near 
the  close  of  the  season,  and  others,  where  the  young 
squashes  turned  yellow  and  died,  under,  seemingly,  pre- 
cisely the  same  circumstance.  I  am  inclined  to  think, 
that  it  is  not  well  to  pinch  off  the  ends  of  the  vines  be- 
fore the  young  squashes  have  attained  to  the  size  of  a 
large  orange.  How  far  a  crop  of  squashes  might  be  in- 
creased by  the  nipping  of  the  vines,  or  a  pruning  of  the 
roots,  is  a  problem  yet  to  be  settled.  The  use  of  the 
cultivator  just  before  the  vines  spread,  must  do  much 
in  the  way  of  root-pruning  the  vines. 

THE    RIPENING    AND     GATHERING    OF    THE 
CROP. 

In  seasons,  in  which  the  early  part  of  summer  is  cold, 
farmers  sometimes  get  almost  discouraged  with  the  small 
number  of  squashes  that  set,  and  the  slow  growth  of  such 


80  SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GROW   THEM,    ETC. 

as  do  form,  but  a  few  hot  weeks  entirely  change  the 
aspect  of  affairs. 

When  we  have  good  corn  weather,  it  takes  but  a  few 
weeks  to  mature  a  squash.  I  have  known  instances  when 
the  first  fruit  set  was  completely  destroyed  by  a  hail  storm, 
which  occurred  late  in  September,  and  yet  a  fine  crop  of 
squashes  was  gathered  from  the  vines.  When  June  and 
July  are  colder  than  usual,  farmers  will  often  come  out 
from  an  examination  of  their  squash  patch  with  a  signifi- 
cant shake  of  the  head,  yet  I  have  never  known  a  season,  in 
which  cold  or  wet  prevented  the  growing  of  a  fair  crop 
of  squashes  on  land  selected  with  judgment,  well  ma- 
nured, and  taken  care  of.  The  degree  of  ripening  to 
which  the  crop  attains,  will  be  affected  by  a  cold  and  wet 
season,  but  the  chances  of  a  crop  are  equally  good 'with  a 
season  wetter  and  consequently  colder  than  usual,  as  with 
a  season  hotter  and  dryer  than  ordinary,  for,  in  addition 
to  the  check  to  their  development  caused  by  a  drought, 
the  borer  and  bugs  are  more  numerous  and  more  active 
in  a  very  dry  season  than  during  a  very  wet  one. 

Ripening  is  indicated  in  the  soft  or  fleshy  stemmed 
squashes,  such  as  the  Hubbard,  Marrow,  and  Turban,  by 
the  drying  of  the  stem,  and  a  dead,  punk-like  appearance 
which  they  assume.  The  leaves  near  the  root  gradually 
turn  yellow  and  dry  up,  and  the  squashes  themselves 
change  color ;  the  Hubbard  assuming  a  duller,  more  rus- 
set color,  and  the  Marrow  and  Turban  sorts  a  deeper 
orange.  The  skin  of  the  Marrow  and  Turban  wi]l  now 
offer  more  resistance  to  the  thumb-nail,  while  the  Hubbard 
will  begin  to  put  on  a  shell,  which  will  be  first  detected 
near  the  stem  end.  It  is  a  singular  fact,  that  the  shell  of 
the  Hubbard  squash  usually  begins  to  form  on  the  under 
side — the  part  towards  the  ground.  When  this  stage  is 
reached,  squashes  can  be  safely  cut  for  storage. 

At  some  seasons,  a  large  portion  of  the  crop,  and,  at 
most  seasons,  a  small  portion  of  the  crop,  just  before 


SQUASHES,   HOW   TO    GEOW   THEM,    ETC.  31 

ripening,  are  affected  by  a  blight,  which  turns  the  leaves 
black  near  the  bills,  when  they  die  down,  and  all  the  signs 
of  early  maturity  are  presented  to  the  inexperienced  eye. 
When  the  process  of  ripening  goes  on  naturally,  the  ex- 
posure to  the  sun's  rays,  after  the  leaves  have  died,  does 
no  harm,  but  promotes  the  full,  maturing  bf  the  squash  ; 
but  when  squashes  become  exposed  before  the  natural 
time,  by  the  blighting  of  the  leaves,  they  are,  particularly 
if  of  the  Hubbard  variety,  apt  to  be  "  sun  scalt,"  as  the 
term  is,  by  which  is  meant  a  bleaching,  or  whitening  of 
the  part  most  exposed  to  the  sun.  Such  squashes  rarely 
form  shells,  and,  if  badly  scalded,  are  apt  to  rot  at  the  part 
affected.  In  cutting  squashes  from  the  vines,  a  large  and 
sharp  knife  is  needed.  There  are  two  ways  to  cut  squashes 
from  the  vines ;  one  is,  to  cut  the  vine,  leaving  a  small 
piece  attached  to  the  stem.  By  so  doing,  the  stem  does 
not  dry  up  so  readily,  and  as  large  stems,  when  green,  will 
weigh  as  much  as  a  quarter  of  a  pound,  if  squashes  are  to 
be  sold  soon  after  gathering,  this  will  give  quite  an  addi- 
tion to  their  weight.  Narrow,  selfish  men  sometimes  cut 
their  squashes  this  way. 

The  usual  way^s,  to  cut  the  stem  from  the  vine.  When 
first  cut,  more  or  less  sap  will  run  out  in  a  stream  from 
the  hollow  stem,  though  the  squash  may  be  fully  ripe. 

A    CRITICAL    PERIOD. 

What  shall  be  done  with  the  squashes  after  they  are  cut 
from  the  vines  ?  The  stems  need  a  little  exposure  to  the  sun 
to  scar  them,  and  the  earth,  which  adheres  to  those  grown 
on  low  land,  needs  to  be  dried,  that  it  may  be  rubbed  off 
before  the  squashes  are  stored.  A  good  way  to  accomplish 
this,  is,  to  let  the  squash  remain  where  it  is  cut,  provided 
the  leaves  do  not  shade  it,  care  being  taken  to  give  it  a 
turn,  to  bring  the  under  side  up  to  the  sun. 

If  there  is  danger  from  frost,  it  is  better  to  gather  them 


32  SQUASHES,   HOW   TO   GROW    THEM,   ETC, 

together  at  convenient  distances,  that  they  may  be  more 
readily  protected.  The  interval  between  the  cutting  of 
squashes  and  the  storing  of  them  is  a  critical  period,  ns 
oftentimes  the  keeping  of  the  crop  depends  upon  the 
course  then  taken.  There  is  a  pernicious  practice,  quite 
prevalent,  of  placing  them -in  piles  as  high  as  can  be  made, 
without  their  rolling  off.  Should  frost  threaten,  this,  of 
course,  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  mass  may  be  the 
more  readily  covered  with  vines  to  protect  them;  but 
when  so  piled,  as  soon  as  danger  from  frost  is  over,  they 
should  at  once  be  taken  down,  so  that  all  may  be  exposed  as 
much  as  possible  to  the  sun  and  air.  Farmers,  in  handling 
squashes  at  this  period,  are  apt  to  lose  sight  of  one  im- 
portant fact,  viz. :  that  when  a  squash  is  cut  from  the  vine, 
its  vitality  is  impaired,  and  it  has  no  longer  such  power  to 
resist  the  effects  of  atmospheric  changes  as  it  had'  previous 
to  the  separation.  I  say  its  vitality  is  "impaired,"  for 
the  fact  that  the  seed  continues  to  fill  out  for  a  month  or 
two  after  the  squashes  are  gathered  and  stored,  proves 
that  there  is  a  degree  of  vitality,  however  feeble,  yet 
remaining  in  the  squash  after  separation  from  the  vine. 
The  fact  that  sap  exudes  and  gradually  thickens  into 
tears,  or,  at  times,  runs  in  a  stream  from  the  stems 
when  cut,  no  matter  how  ripe  a  soft  stemmed  squash 
may  appear  to  be,  seems  to  prove  that  some  vital  function 
of  the  sap  vessels  has  been  disturbed ;  while  the  greater 
readiness  with  which  such  squashes  decay,  carries  us  be- 
yond theory  to  the  fact  of  a  diminished  vitality.  I  have 
known  the  lower  layer  of  a  lot  of  Marrow  squashes  in  the 
field,  to  be  found  rotten  through  and  through  on  removal — 

7  O  O 

and  this  when  there  had  been  no  frost  to  injure  them — the 
result  being  due  wholly  to  the  dampness  of  the  ground,  dur- 
ing a  rainy  interval,  acting  on  a  diminished  vitality. 

I  have  known  instances  in  which  lots  of  Marrow  squashes 
that  had  never  been  touched  by  frost,  and  were  perfectly 
sound  when  stored,  were  suddenly  covered  with  spots  of 


SQUASHES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC.       33 

black  rot,  soon  after  they  were  put  into  a  dry  apartment. 
These  lots  had  been  exposed  in  the  field  in  piles  during 
a  series  of  days  of  cold  rain.  The  practical  lesson  to  be 
drawn  from  such  facts  is,  that  squashes  should  never  be 
left  in  the  fields  exposed  to  cold  rains  after  cutting. 

After  the  stems  have  had  the  sun  a  couple  of  days  to 
dry  and  sear  them,  and  even  before,  if  cold,  wet  storms 
threaten,  the  squashes  should  be  piled  with  great  care  on 
spring  wagons,  and  taken  from  the  field.  The  rule  should 
be  laid  down  as  invariable,  that  no  squash  shall  be  drop- 
ped in  any  stage  of  its  progress,  from  the  field  to  the 
market;  they  should  always  be  laid  down.  • 

THE    STORING    OF    THE    CROP. 

Squashes  are  usually  at  their  lowest  price  in  the  fall  of 
the  year,  after  the  crop  has  been  gathered,  and  before  the 
first  severe  frosts.  The  crop  being  bulky,  and  requiring 
dry  storage,  farmers  are  intent  on  getting  it  to  market  be- 
fore cold  weather  sets  in.  After  the  first  severe  freezing 
weather,  the  crop  is  usually  held  at  a  higher  figure,  as  the 
surplus  not  intended  for  storage  has  been  disposed  of.  In 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  large  cities  of  the  North,  a 
large  proportion  of  the  crop  is  stored  in  buildings  known 
as  "  squash-houses,"  to  be  marketed  during  the  winter  and 
spring  months.  These  buildings  are  oftentimes  old  dwelling- 
houses,  school-houses,  or  ware-houses,  removed  from  their 
original  locations  to  the  farm,  and  then  put  to  this  second- 
ary use.  I  present  a  vertical  section  of  my  own  squash- 
house,  by  which  the  general  features  of  all  of  them  can 
be  seen  at  a  glance. 

In  dimensions,  the  building  is  about  24  x  35  feet,  with  a 
height  of  10  feet  to  the  plates.  It  is  divided  into  three 
rows  of  bins,  which  are  separated  from  each  other  and 
the  sides  of  the  building  by  aisles,  (A,  A,  A,)  about  26 
inches  in  width, a  distance  which  admits  of  the  easy  handling 


SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GROW  TIIEir,    ETC. 


of  a  bushel  basket,  or  barrel.  The  bins,  (J5,  _Z?,  _Z>,)  are 
about  5  feet  wide,  26  inches  high,  and  5|-  feet  long.  The 
uprights,  which  support  the  series  of  bins,  are  small  joists, 
2><4  inches,  with  cross-ties  of  inch  or  inch  and  a  quarter 
board  sunk  into  them,  on  which  the  several  "platforms  arc 
laid.  These  uprights  are  the  length  of  the  bins  apart, 
viz. :  5^  feet.     At  the  edges  of  the  bins,  boards,  6  inches 


. 


-:T" . :-  — "■ 


" 


iv/orn  &s  rr: 

SECTION  OF   SQUASH-HOUSE. 

wide,  are  laid,  to  prevent  the  squashes  from  rolling  out. 
These  boards  should  be  planed  on  the  inner,  upper  edge, 
that  they  may  not  cut  into  the  squashes  that  lean  upon 
them.  The  series  of  floors  are  made  of  strips  of  board, 
from  four  to  six  inches  wide,  nailed  about  half  an  inch 
apart,  to  allow  a  circulation  of  air.  It  is  well  to  have 
the  lower  floor  a  sufficient  distance  from  the  floor  of  the 
squash-house,  to  permit  a  cat  to  go  under.  The  cellar  wall 
should  be  carried  close  up  to  the  floor,  by  filling  in  front 
of  the  timbers  with  brick,  or  small  stones  and  mortar ; 
this  will  prevent  rats  from  working  through.  As  the 
building  is  designed  to  support  much  weight,  it  should  be 
strongly  braced  by  timbers  crossing  from  plate  timber  to 
plate  timber,  to  prevent  spreading,  while  the  cross-timbers, 
in  the  cellar,  require  props  of  masonry,  or  joist.     To  eco- 


SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GROW   THEM,    ETC.  35 

nomize  in  fuel,  on  the  two  coldest  sides,  my  squash-house 
is  double  plastered,  aud  has  double  windows  all  around ; 
some  have  inner  wooden  shutters  to  each  window,  which 
are  kept  up  during  cold  weather,  both  day  and  night,  only 
as  much  light  being  admitted,  at  times,  as  may  be  neces- 
sary, while  attending  to  work.  The  roof  has  five  sliding 
windows,  which  assist  in  ventilation  and  give  light  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  building,  that  otherwise  would  be  quite 
dark  when  filled  with  squashes.  The  stove  is  at  one  of 
the  coldest  corners,  with  a  funnel  passing  across  to  a 
chimney  at  the  opposite  corner.  A  building  of  the  above 
proportions  will  hold  about  one  ton  of  Hubbard  squashes 
to  two  bins,  and  by  careful  and  close  stowage  in  all  avail- 
able room,  it  can  be  made  to  hold  about  sixty  tons. 

There  is  an  advantage  in  having  a  low,  wide  building 
rather  than  a  high  and  narrow  one,  as  a  greater  portion  of 
it  is  accessible  from  the  floor,  it  is  less  exposed  to  cold 
winds,  and  the  heat  is  more  evenly  distributed.  In  a  high 
building,  the  heat  in  the  upper  portion  is  apt  to  be  excessive. 

The  squashes  should  be  brought  to  the  squash-house  in  a 
dry  condition,  and  be  stored  before  dew  falls.  The  stems 
being  yet  green,  the  squashes  should  be  so  piled  as  to 
bring  these  to  the  outside  as  much  as  possible.  In  placing 
the  squashes  on  the  shelves,  put  the  largest  ones  on  the  bot- 
tom, giving  them  all  a  slant  in  one  direction ;  they  will 
thus  pack  better,  and  the  uniformity  will  be  agreeable  to 
the  eye.  From  the  beginning  of  the  storing,  every  win- 
dow and  door  should  be  kept  open  during  fair  weather, 
and  a  fire  at  the  same  time  will  help  in  the  drying  of  the 
stems.  Should  there  come  a  damp  time  of  one  day  or 
more,  by  all  means  start  the  fire.  The  stems  will  be  apt  to 
mould  some,  and  the  air  of  the  building  have  a  disagree- 
able smell  if  they  decay,  though  a  little  moulding  may 
always  be  expected.  In  about  three  weeks  from  the  time 
of  storing,  the  stems  will  be  dry.  In  handling  the  squashes, 
I  need  hardly  reiterate  the  caution  of  care.     My  practice 


3G  SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GROW  TIIEtt,    ETC. 

is  to  form  a  string  of  boys,  from  the  wagon  to  the 
shelves,  and  the  squashes  are  tossed  from  one  to  another, 
with  the  caution  to  handle  them  like  eggs.  Boys  well 
trained  will  not  drop  more  than  one  squash  to  the  ton,  and 
I  have  known  my  boys  to  pass  several  tons  without  drop- 
ping a  single  squash. 

CARE  DURING  THE  WIXTER. 

If  the  squash-house  has  been  built  with  reference  to 
warmth,  when  once  filled  with  squashes,  it  is  surprising 
with  what  little  fire' frost  can  be  kept  out.  The  mass  of 
squashes  are,  in  themselves,  a  great  store-house  of  heat, 
and  with  inside  shutters  for  the  coldest  weather,  the 
building  is  frost  proof,  with  a  small  outlay  of  fuel. 

In  my  own  building,  capable  of  storing  sixty  tons  or 
more,  I  have  a  salamander  stove  of  capacity  sufficient  to 
hold  two  hods  of  coal.  In  ordinary  winter  weather  two 
hods  of  fresh,  and  a  hod  of  sifted  coal  for  night  use,  will  last 
about  twenty-four  hours.  To  keep  the  fire  over  night,  I 
leave  the  cover  off  about  half  an  inch,  and,  if  very  windy, 
also  put  up  the  door  in  front  within  half  an  inch  of  closed. 
When  I  first  attempted  to  keep  squashes  during  the  winter 
in  very  cold  weather,  I  frequently  sat  up  till  midnight,  and 
then  retired  with  much  anxiety,  lest  Jack  Frost  should 
steal  a  march  on  me  before  morning ;  but  from  experience 
I  find  that  a  salamander  can  be  as  well  regulated  and  as 
readily  controlled  as  a  Magee  stove,  while  the  greater 
length  of  funnel  that  can  be  used  with  them,  by  reason 
of  their  superior  draft,  is  a  decided  advantage. 

No  one  can  keep  squashes  to  the  best  advantage,  until 
he  has  fully  learned  to  so  control  his  fire  as  to  keep  the 
temperature  near  the  freezing  point,  and  yet  not  endanger 
the  squashes.  From  a  want  of  this  knowledge,  almost  all 
squash-houses  are  kept  at  too  high  a  temperature,  and,  as 
a  consequence,  the  squashes  lose  in  weight  and  quality, 
and,  if  they  are  Hubbards,  in  appearance  also,  losing  their 


SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GROW   THEM,    ETC.  8? 

fine  dark  green  color,  and  becoming  of  a  reddish,  rusty  hue. 
The  best  temperature  is  as  low  as  forty  degrees.  After 
squashes  are  stored,  the  great  desiderata  are  a  low  tem- 
perature and  a  dry  air.  Should  the  weather  be  mild  in  the 
course  of  the  winter,  never  be  tempted  to  open  the  win- 
dows unless  the  air  is  dry, — a  very  rare  thing  in  winter, 
as,  on  most  mild  winter  days,  the  air  is  loaded  with  moist- 
ure. If  it  is  desirable  to  air  the  squash-house,  select  a  dry 
day  when  not  very  cold,  start  up  the  fire  and  open  the 
windows  at  the  roof.  Squashes  that  were  grown  in  a  wet 
sea-son,  will  rot  most  in  winter,  and  vice  versa.  Other 
things  equal,  the  keeping  of  squashes  depends  greatly  on 
the  hygrometric  state  of  the  air — in  other  words,  the 
dryer  the  air  the  better  they  will  keep.  This  is  the  reason 
squashes  keep  better  in  a  squash-house  than  in  a  cellar — ■ 
the  house  is  no  warmer  than  a  cellar,  but  the  air  is  dryer. 
In  dry,  sandy  cellars,  by  the  aid  of  a  fire,  they  can  be  kept 
about  as  well  as  in  a  squash-house.  Squashes  in  dry 
cellars  will  usually  keep  very  well  until  January,  and  some- 
times to  the  first  of  February,  particularly  if  the  damp, 
external  air  can  be  kept  from  them.  Several  years  ago  I 
lost  not  far*from  twenty-five  tons  of  squashes  in  about  ten 
days,  as  I  now  believe,  from  having  admitted  the  warm, 
damp  air  of  a  January  thaw  into  the  cellar.  After  squashes 
are  stored,  the  less  they  can  be  handled  the  better;  and 
in  cellars,  it  is  oftentimes  better  to  let  a  few  rot  than  to 
overhaul  squashes  late  in  the  season  with  reference  to 
culling  out  the  rotten  ones,  for,  after  such  overhauling, 
they  usually  decay  fast^:  than  before.  Cellar-kept 
squashes  have  some  advantages  over  these  kept  in  a  squash- 
house  ;  they  keep  their  original  rich  green  color,  lose  but 
little  or  none  in  weight,  and  are  of  better  quality.  They 
have  the  two  disadvantages  of  not  keeping  as  long,  and 
perishing  very  soon  when  sent  late  to  market.  This  latter 
fact  is  now  generally  known  to  dealers,  and  they  hesitate 
to  purchase  cellar-kept  squashes  late  in  winter.     The  win- 


88  SQUASHES,   HOW  TO   GROW  THEM,   ETC. 

ter  of  186G-7  will  be  a  memorable  one  among  the  squash 
men  of  Massachusetts.  Squashes  being  remarkably  plenty 
and  cheap  in  the  fall,  every  squash-house  in  the  vicinity  of 
Boston  was  filled  to  overflowing.  As  the  season  advanced, 
squashes  began  to  show  a  remarkable  tendency  to  rot,  and 
the  result  was  that,  in  many  cases,  as  large  a  proportion 
as  four-filths  of  the  crop  rotted  before  spring  opened.  The 
summer  previous  had  been  unusually  wet  and  cold. 

If  apples,  squashes,  or  any  other  fruits  are  gathered 
ripe,  the  next  step  is  to  decay ;  but  if  they  are  not  fully 
ripe,  they  have  this  intermediate  step  to  take  before  de- 
caying. Heat  is  an  agent  in  promoting  progress  in  each 
of  these  steps ;  hence,  the  less  heat  above  a  freezing  temper- 
ature in  which  squashes  can  be  kept,  other  conditions 
being  equal,  the  longer  they  will  keep. 

The  very  small  squashes  which  are  usually  given  to  stock 
as  soon  as  gathered,  are  among  the  very  best  for  keeping, 
provided  they  are  stored  in  the  warmest  part  of  the  build- 
ing. Late  in  spring  they  are  salable  at  a  high  figure  for 
cooking  purposes.  Out  of  about  five  hundred  pounds  of 
such  squashes  stored  so  near  my  salamander  that  the 
outer  tier  cooked  with  the  heat,  I  found  but  about  ten 
pounds  of  defective  squash  when  I  overhauled  them 
for  the  first  time,  near  April.  Squashes  planted  about  the 
first  of  June  will  usually  keep  better  than  those  planted 
earlier,  on  the  same  principle  that  the  Roxbury  Russet, 
and  Baldwin,  keep  better  than  the  Porter,  or  Sweet  Bough 
apple,  the  former  not  being  ripe  when  gathered  from  the 
tree.  The  order  in  nature  is  that  fruit  should  ripen  before 
it  decays. 

MARKETING  THE  CROP. 

Squashes  are  sold  by  the  piece,  by  the  pound,  and  by 
the  barrel.  Sales  by  the  piece  are  unknown  in  the  Eastern 
States,  as  far  as  my  knowledge  extends.  In  the  markets 
of  New  England,  after  the  summer  squashes,  of  which 


SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GKOW  THEM,    ETC.  30 

there  is  but  a  limited  demand,  the  Marrow  and  Turban  are 
brought  to  market,  and,  before  frosty  weather  sets  in, 
they  are  sold  mostly  by  the  ton  to  large  dealers.  Late  in 
the  fall  the  Hubbards  begin  to  come  to  market,  for  if 
sold  just  after  gathering,  they  are  rather  forced  on  the 
market,  the  Marrow  and  Turban  being  usually  recognized 
as  the  squashes  for  fall  use.  During  the  winter,  the  sup- 
ply from  the  squash-houses  around  Boston  is  mostly 
brought  to  market  in  barrels,  and  sold  by  the  barrel  with- 
out weighing.  This  is  poor  practice,  as  there  is  often  a 
number  of  pounds  difference  made  by  the  thickness  of 
the  squash,  its  size,  the  packing,  and  the  size  of  the  barrel. 
Such  a  system  of  marketing  is  apt  to  tempt  to  petty  trick- 
ery. 

A  greater  or  less  proportion  of  stored  squashes  will 
decay  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances.  It  is  the 
policy  of  the  squash  grower  to  lose  as  little  as  possible  in 
this  way,  and  the  custom  of  the  markets  of  Boston  usually 
allows  a  little  latitude  in  this  matter.  Hence,  particularly 
as  the  season  advances,  one  or  more  squashes  that  have 
small  rotten  spots  on  them,  are  often  packed  in  a  barrel. 
The  Hubbard  is  a  very  deceiving  squash ;  it  may  be  en- 
tirely rotten  inside,  and  yet,  to  inexperienced  eyes,  appear 
perfectly  sound  without.  If  the  outside  has  white  mould 
spots,  looking  like  some  of  the  concentric  mosses,  the 
squash  is  usually  sound  underneath  the  shell;  but  if  these 
mould  spots  are  greenish  or  yellow,  it  is  usually  soft  rotten 
in  a  spot  just  beneath  them.  If  the  shell  at  either  end, 
(and  the  Hubbard  usually  begins  to  decay  at  the  ends), 
has  a  watery  look  outside,  the  squash  is  usually  consider- 
ably decayed  underneath.  If  the  Hubbard  is  very  light, 
it  has  usually  the  dry  rot  inside ;  if  remarkably  heavy,  it 
is  usually  water-soaken  and  worthless  within.  If  a  squash, 
on  being  cut,  proves  to  be  water-soaken,  a  close  exami- 
nation will  usually  show  some  small  opening,  where,  during 
some  stage  of  its  growth,  the  external  air  found  entrance. 


40       SQUASHES,  HOW  TO  GKOW  THEM,  ETC 

FROST-BITTEN    SQUASHES. 

With  the  utmost  care,  squashes  will  at  times  get  frost- 
bitten. The -Marrows  and  Turbans  show  this  by  turning 
a  darker  orange  color  on  the  part  frozen.  If  as  much  as 
one-half  of  the  squash  has  been  frozen,  it  is  frozen  through 
its  thickness,  and  will  very  certainly  soon  decay,  and  the 
best  disposition  to  make  of  it  is,  to  keep  it  at  about  freez- 
ing point  in  an  ice-house,  until  fed  to  stock.  If  less  than 
half  has  been  frozen,  before  the  sun  shines  on  it  turn  the 
frozen  surface  under,  and  keep  out  the  light  as  much  as 
possible ;  this  will  take  out  the  frost  and  save  it,  if  any 
remedy  will,  though  a  frozen  squash  is  always  unreliable 
property.  Some  years  since,  I  had  a  load  of  Marrow 
squashes  brought  me,  which  had  been  stored  in  a  barn 
during  a  cold  spell,  and  the  outer  tiers  had  been  frost- 
bitten. I  separated  the  badly  frost-bitten  ones,  putting 
them,  frozen  side  down,  in  a  dark  cellar  on  the  damp 
earth,  and  stored  such  as  showed  no  signs  of  injury  on 
the  shelves.  In  a  few  days,  no  sign  of  frost  could  be  seen 
on  those  stored  in  the  cellar,  and  they  kept  apparently  as 
well  as  though  they  had  never  been  injured,  while  those 
stored  on  the  shelves  soon  rotted  badly.  The  Hubbard 
squash  is  not  as  much  injured  by  frost  as  are  the  Marrow 
and  Turban ;  if  it  has  a  shell  on  it,  the  result  will  usually 
be  the  production  of  a  dry  rot  under  the  shell  as  far  as 
the  frost  extended,  and  no  further.  I  have  cut  squashes 
in  February  that  had  been  frozen  in  November,  over  an 
area  of  about  five  inches  square,  and  found  all  the  injury 
done  limited  to  this  space. 

MARKET    PRICES    OF    SQUASHES. 

Within  the  past  six  years,  Marrow  squashes  have  varied 
in  price  in  the  markets  of  New  England  from  $10  to  $40 
per  ton ;  these  variations  are  caused,  for  the  most  part,  by 
the  quantity  brought  to  market,  for,  though  equal  areas 


SQtJASHES,   HOW  TO   GROW  THEM,   ETC.  41 

may  be  planted,  there  may  be  all  this  difference,  owing  to 
the  greater  prevalence  of  insects  one  season  over  another. 
The  average  price  of  Marrow  squashes  for  the  past  six 
years  has  been  about  twenty-five  dollars  a  ton. 

The  extremes  of  prices  of  the  Turban  and  Hubbard 
during  the  same  period  have  been  from  $20  to  $50 ;  the 
average  having  been  nearly  thirty-four  dollars. 

Previous  to  the  war,  the  Marrow  ruled  in  the  market  at 
from  $15  to  $20  per  ton,  and  the  Hubbard  at  from  $20  to 
$25.  These  prices  are  the  market  rates  just  after  the  crop 
is  gathered.  As  the  season  advances,  prices  rise  to  50, 
60,  70,  80,  90  and  100  dollars  per  ton,  and  occasional  lots 
kept  late  into  the  spring,  and  sold  by  the  barrel,  have 
brought  as  high  as  $140  per  ton.  The  last  four  tons  I 
sold  the  past  season  brought  me  $400 ;  yet  so  remarkably 
poorly  did  the  crop  keep  the  past  winter,  that  the  profit 
would  have  been  equally  as  great,  had  I  sold  at  $25  per 
ton  in  the  fall. 

The  markets  of  New  York  and  of  the  large  Southern 
cities  are,  as  yet,  but  poorly  supplied  with  the  Hubbard 
squash  during  the  winter  season.  I  can  think  of  no  in- 
vestment in  agricultural  products  that  would  pay  better 
than  the  judicious  handling  of  a  couple  of  hundred  tons 
of  Hubbard  squashes  in  New  York  or  Philadelphia  dur- 
ing the  winter  months. 

Squash  farming,  on  lands  pushed  well  out  into  the  ocean, 
have  some  advantages  over  inland  farming.  Neither  the 
cabbage,  or  turnip  fly,  the  pea  bug,  squash  bug,  or  other 
destructive  insect  is  nearly  as  prevalent  in  such  sections 
as  just  back  from  the  coast,  while  the  temperature  is 
three  or  four  degrees  higher  late  in  the  fall,  which  usually 
carries  the  crop  safely  through  the  first  severe  frost,  and 
gives  them  the  advantage  of  two  or  three  weeks  good 
ripening  weather,  that  usually  precedes  the  severe  frosts 
that  usher  in  winter.  I  have  known  years  when  the  mag- 
gots and  bugs  proved  so  destructive  to  the  crop  a  few 


42  SQUASHES,   HOW  TO    GROW   THEM,    ETC. 

miles  from  the  coast,  as  to  bring  squashes  up  to  40  and 
50  dollars  the  ton,  when  at  the  sea  side  the  crop  was  as 
large  as  usual,  having  received  but  little  or  no  injury. 

SQUASHES    FOR    STOCK. 

When  a  large  quantity  of  squashes  is  stored,  there 
will  always  be  more  or  less  of  waste.  If  in  a  large  town, 
many  of  the  spotted  squashes  can  be  most  profitably 
handled  by  cutting  out  the  decayed  portion,  and  market- 
ing the  squash  at  a  reduced  price.  It  has  been  my  practice 
for  years  to  dispose  of  many  of  my  defective  squashes  in 
this  way,  and  I  would  state,  as  a  very  fair  index  of  the 
comparative  popularity  of  the  Autumnal  Marrow,  Turban, 
and  Hubbard  squashes,  in  a  community  where  they  have 
all  been  grown  for  years,  and  are  well  known,  that  the 
sales  of  my  market-man  would  average,  late  in  the  fall 
and  in  early  winter,  ten  pounds  of  Hubbard  and  Turban 
to  one  pound  of  the  Marrow,  though  he  offered  the  Mar- 
row at  one-third  the  price  of  the  Hubbard  and  Turban. 
After  many  trials  I  have  found  it  next  to  impossible  to 
dispose  of  the  Marrow,  while  having  a  stock  of  Hubbard 
and  Turban,  hence  have  adopted  the  plan  of  feeding  the 
former  to  my  stock. 

I  have  fed  principally  to  horned  cattle  and  pigs.  The 
squashes  should  first  have  the  seed  removed,  as  these  tend 
to  dry  uj:>  milch-cows,  or,  if  fed  to  pigs,  to  cause  them  to 
urinate  very  freely.  The  Marrow  should  be  fed  to  horned 
stock  either  in  quite  large  pieces,  or  in  pieces  about  three 
inches  square,  to  prevent  choking — for,  if  made  much 
smaller,  the  cattle  are  more  liable  to  choke.  The  Hub- 
bard should  always  be  cut  into  pieces  three  inches  square, 
as  the  shell  and  curve  of  large  pieces  combined,  are  too 
much  for  the  cattle  to  manage. 

If  squashes  are  plenty,  they  may  be  fed  very  liberally, 
a  bushel  and  more  a  day  for  each  head ;  the  only  danger 


SQUASHES,   HOW   TO    GROW   THEM,    ETC  43 

to  be  guarded  against  being  lest  they  relax  the  animals 
too  much.  In  value  for  milk  purposes,  they  appear  to 
combine  the  good  qualities  of  the  Mangold  Wurtzel,  and 
the  Carrot,  both  increasing  the  flow  of  milk  and  improv- 
ing its  quality.  This  is  more  particularly  true  of  the 
Hubbard  and  Turban  varieties.  For  fattening  purposes, 
the  Hubbard  is  excellent,  as  might  be  anticipated  from 
the  large  proportion  of  sugar  which  is  developed  in  it  at 
the  approach  of  winter.  I  have  known  a  cow  to  be  fatted 
for  the  butcher  on  the  Hubbard  squash,  used  in  connection 
with  good  English  hay. 

In  feeding  to  pigs,  it  can  be  fed. raw,  or  be  boiled  up 
with  meal,  or  meal  and  scraps.  My  usual  practice  has 
been,  to  boil  the  squash  in  a  Mott's  boiler,  about  a  barrel 
and  a  half  at  a  time,  adding  a  peck  of  beef  or  pork  scraps, 
broken  into  small  pieces,  and  stirring  in  meal,  sufficient  to 
thicken  it.  When  cooked,  it  should  be  cooled  as  soon  as 
possible,  as  the  squash  is  very  apt  to  sour,  and  make  the 
mass  thin  and  somewhat  unpalatable  to  the  animals.  I 
have  known  a  sow,  with  young,  to  be  kept  wholly  on  raw 
Hubbard  squashes,  and  on  her  coming  in  to  be  in  better 
condition  than  was  desirable. 

Squashes  might  be  raised  for  cattle  among  corn  as  pump- 
kins are,  (they  are  better  food  for  animals  than  pump- 
kins,) though  I  have  doubts  of  the  profitableness  of  this 
double  crop,  where  each  makes  its  growth  and  matures 
at  about  the  same  time. 

No  doubt  an  improvement  on  this  is,  to  omit  every 
third  row  of  corn,  and  give  the  vacant  space  to  the  squash 
hills.  Among  seed  onions,  I  grow  squashes  with  little  or 
no  apparent  detriment  to  the  crop,  but  in  this  case  the 
crops  are  planted  and  mature  with  more  than  a  month's 
difference  between  them  at  each  end  of  the  season.  Be- 
sides horned  cattle  and  hogs,  many  horses,  goats,  poultry, 
and  rabbits  will  eat  squashes  with  avidity. 

As  to  their  comparative  value  as  food  for  stock,  each 


44 

grower  must  strike  the  balance  for  himself — the  facts  be- 
ing, that  the  yield  is  from  one-fourth  to  one-third  as  great 
as  carrots,  and  from  one-fourth  to  one-fifth  as  great  as 
mangolds,  while  they  require  but  a  fraction  of  the  care  in 
cultivation  and  gathering,  that  either  of  these  crops  do. 
t 

VARIETIES  OF  SQUASHES. 

Owing  to  the  great  tendency  in  the  varieties  of  the 
Cucurbitaceous  Family  to  cross  with  each  other,  hybids  are 
very  common.  Seed  planted  tjie  first  season  after  the  cross- 
ing has  been  made,  will  usually  produce  a  greater  crop  than 
either  of  the  parent  kinds,  and  individual  squashes  will  be 
superior  in  quality  to  either  of  the  parents  ;  yet,  as  a  rule, 
hybridization  is  not  desirable,  for,  after  the  first  season, 
there  is  a  deterioration  in  the  quality,  below  the  average 
of  the  parent  kinds,  while  the  mixed  varieties  are  not  so 
marketable  as  the  pure  kinds. 

Hubbard  Squasho — I  have  traced  the  history  of  this 
squash  back  about  sixty  years,  when  the  first  specimen 


HUBBARD    SQUASH. 


was  brought  into  Marblehead  by  a  market-man  named 
Green,  who  lived  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston.  The  person 
who,  when  a  girl,  ate  of  the  first  specimen,  is  now  living,  an 


SQUASHES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC.        45 

old  lady  of  over  four  score  years,  and  recalls  the  original 
form,  which  is  much  like  that  of  the  present  type — turned 
up  "  like  a  Chinese  shoe."  It  is  now  above  twenty  years 
since  the  variety  was  first  brought  to  our  notice  by  our 
old  washerwoman  named  Hubbard  ;  and  to  distinguish  it 
from  a  blue  variety  that  we  were  then  raising,  we  called 
it  "Ma'am  Hubbard's  Squash"  ;  and  when  the  seed  became 
a  commercial  article,  and  it  became  necessary  to  give  it  a 
fixed  name,  I  called  it  the  Hubbard  squash.  If  I  had  been 
able  at  the  time  to  forecast  its  present  fame,  and  have  fore- 
seen that  it  would  become  the  established  winter  variety, 
throughout  the  squash  growing  region,  I  might  have  be- 
stowed some  more  ambitions  name ;  and  a^ain  I  misrht 
not,  for  the  old  lady  was  faithful  in  her  narrow  sphere  in 
her  day  and  generation,  a  good,  humble  soul,  and  it  pleases 
me  to  think  that  the  name  of  such  an  one  has  become,  with- 
out any  intent  of  hers,  famous. 

The  form  of  the  Hubbard  is  spherical  at  the  middle, 
gradually  receding  to  a  neck  at  the  stem  end,  and  to  a 
point  usually  curved  at  the  calyx  end,  where  it  terminates 
in  a  kind  of  button  or  an  acorn.  In  color  it  is  dark  green, 
excepting  where  it  rests  on  the  earth,  where  it  is  of  an  or- 
ange color.  It  usually  has  streaks  of  dirty  wThite  begin- 
ning at  the  calyx  end,  where  the  ribs  meet,  and  extend- 
ing half  or  two-thirds  way  up  the  squash.  After  the  squash 
ripens,  the  surface  exposed  to  the  sun  turns  to  a  dirty 
brown  color.  The  surface  is  often  quite  rough,  and  presents 
quite  a  knotty  appearance.  When  the  Hubbard  is  ripe  it 
has  a  shell  varying  in  thickness  from  that  of  a  cent  to  that 
of  a  Spanish  dollar. 

For  a  year  or  two  after  we  began  to  cultivate  the  Hub- 
bard, we  cultivated  also  a  blue  colored  squash,  called,  at 
the  time,  the  Middleton  Blue.  In  a  few  years  this  squash 
became  so  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  Hubbard,  by 
repeated  crossings,'that  it  appeared  to  share  the  character- 
istics of  a  new  variety  •   hence  we  called  it  the  blue  Hub- 


46  SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GROW   THEM,   .ETC. 

bard,  and  for  some  years  I  spoke  of  two  varieties  of  the 
Hubbard,  a  green  and  a  blue  kind.  On  testing  the  blue 
variety  by  itself,  I  found  it  had  the  characteristic  of  all 
hybrids,  a  tendency  to  sport.  For  this  reason,  of  late 
years  I  have  endeavored  to  throw  it  entirely  out  of  cul- 
tivation in  my  seed  stock. 

After  the  Hubbard  squash  became  somewhat  noted,  a 
communication  occasionally  appeared  in  the  Press  claiming 
that  it  was  but  an  old  variety  revived.  After  giving  all 
these  claims,  including  those  made  to  me  personally  by 
private  correspondence,  a  fair  examination,  I  am  persuaded 
that  the  Hubbard  is  not  an  old  variety  revived,  and  that 
until  it  was  sent  out  from  Marblehead,  with  the  exception 
of  such  cases  as  could  be  traced  to  seed  distributed  occa- 
sionally by  me  during  the  course  of  few  years  previous,  it 
it  was  unkown  in  the  United  States.  In  my  endeavors  to 
trace  its  origin,  the  nearest  I  have  come  to  it  was  in  a 
variety  of  squash  procured  from  one  of  the  West  India 
Islands,  which  had  many  characteristics  in  common  with 
the  Hubbard,  though  the  shells  of  the  squash  were  uni- 
formly blue  in  color,  and  its  quality  was  somewhat  inferior. 

Several  claimed  that  it  was  but  the  Sweet  Potato  squash 
revived.  I  have  raised  a  squash  called  by  that  name  my- 
self, and  have  seen  two  or  more  other  lots  that  were  raised 
by  friends,  from  seed  procured  in  different  sections  of  the 
United  States,  and  never  saw  one  yet  that  resembled  the 
green  Hubbard. 

The  apparent  connection  between  the  Sweet  Potato  and 
Hubbard  squash,  I  am  convinced,  has  been  made  through 
the  blue  variety,  which,  when  without  a  shell,  has  a  close 
resemblance  to  some  of  those  kinds  that  go  under  the 
name  of  "Sweet  Potato"  squash. 

American  Turban  Squash.— I  have  given  the  prefix 
American  Turban  Squash,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  French 
Turban,  with  which  many  seedsmen  have  confounded  it. 
The  French  Turban  is  the  most  beautiful  in  color,  and  the 


SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GROW  THEil,    ETC.  47 

most  worthless  in  quality  of  all  the  varieties  of  squash 
that  have  come  to  my  notice.  Nearly  flat  in  shape,  grow- 
ing to  weigh  ten  to  twenty  pounds,  it  has  a  large  promi- 
nence at  the  calyx,  and  shaped 
like  a  flattened  acorn ;  this  is 
elegantly  quartered,  with  a 
button  in  the  middle,  and  is 
most  beautifully  striped  with 
white  and  a  bright  grass  green, 
while  a  setting  of  bead  work 
surrounds  it.  The  body  of 
the  squash  is  of  the  richest 
orange  color.     In  quality  the 

AMERICAN   TURBAN  SQUASH.  T7V™  „\.        rp  ,    n 

.trench      1  urban     is    coarse, 
watery,  and  insipid. 

The  American  Turban  is,  without  doubt,  a  combination 
of  the  Hubbard,  Autumnal  Marrow,  Acorn,  and  French 
Turban,  and  the  finest  achievement  that  has  as  yet  been  ob- 
tained by  hybridization.  Like  all  hybrids  it  tends  to  sport, 
and  varies  somewhat  in  quality,  so  that  while  most  of  the 
squashes  are  of  first  quality,  some  will  be  found  that  are 
inferior;  yet,  with  such  parents  as  the  Hubbard,  Acorn, 
and  the  Autumnal  Marrow  (when  we  recall  its  early  excel- 
lence), we  might  expect  to  find  a  superior  squash,  and  in 
the  average  quality  of  the  Turban  we  shall  not  be  disap- 
pointed, for  in  dryness,  fineness  of  grain,  sweetness,  deli- 
cacy of  flavor,  and  richness  of  color,  when  fully  ripened, 
it  cannot  be  surpassed.  Like  the  Hubbard,  it  is  edible  before 
it  is  fully  ripe,  either  of  these  varieties,  particularly  the 
Hubbard,  being  superior  for  table  use  when  unripe  to  any  of 
the  varieties  of  summer  squashes.  The  form  of  the  body  of 
the  squash  is  nearly  cylindrical,  the  two  diameters  being 
usually  in  the  proportion  of  three  to  five,  while  it  is  more 
or  less  flat  at  both  the  stem  and  calyx  ends.  At  the  calyx 
end  there  is  usually  more  or  less  prominent  an  acorn. 
This   may   be   very   clearly  defined,    standing  out    very 


48  SQUASHES,    HOW   TO   GEOW   THE3f,    ETC. 

prominently  from  the  body  of  the  squash,  or  it  may  be 
very  much  flattened  and  sunk  within  the  body,  with  the 
acorn  barely  traceable.  In  degree  of  prominence  the 
acorn  sports  greatly,  for  on  squashes  growing  on  the  same 
Tine,  I  have  found  in  one  specimen  the  acorn  projecting 
yery  prominently,  and  very  fully  developed,  while  on  a 
second  specimen  it  could  only  be  traced  in  a  rudimentary 
form.  It  is  not  desirable  that  the  acorn  should  be  promi- 
nent, as  the  seed  extends  into  it  at  the  calyx  end  of  the 
squash  where  the  meat  is  very  thin,  and  if  the  acorn  is 
very  prominent,  a  slight  bruise  will  injure  it  and  cause 
the  squash  to  rot.  For  this  reason  I  have  selected  seed 
squashes  for  the  last  two  or  three  years  from  those  in 
which  the  acorn  was  not  very  prominently  displayed,  en- 
deavoring to  produce  a  type  in  which  it  should  be  little 
more  than  rudimentary. 

Some  writers  on  vegetables  treat  the  American  Turban 
squash  as  but  an  improved  form  of  the  French  Turban, 
whereas  it  is  a  distinct  variety.  It  is  indebted  to  the 
French  Turban  for  nothing  more  than  the  principal  fea- 
tures of  its  form,  getting  its  quality,  keeping  properties, 
color  and  fineness  of  grain  from'its  other  parent.  As  the 
American  Turban  is  the  result  of  hybridization,  there  is 
more  or  less  of  variety  in  the  shape  and  color  of  the  crop, 
and  this  will  continue  to  be  so  unless  by  long  and  close 
cultivation  of  a  particular  type,  sufficient  individuality 
shall  be  acquired  by  this  one  type  to  stamp  the  entire  crop. 
Though  it  may  be  a  very  pleasing  thing  to  the  eye  to  see 
every  specimen  alike,  yet  I  consider  it  too  great  a  risk  to 
cultivate  a  hybrid  squash  for  this  end ;  for  who  knows 
what  characteristics  each  parent  has  contributed  or  how 
much  these  are  affected  by  each  other  in  combination  ? 
Until  these  points  are  determined,  there  is  danger,  lest  in 
continued  selections  of  a  given  type  some  good  traits 
should  be  eliminated. 

We  know  that  in  some  way  the  original  excellence  of 


SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GEOT7   THEM,    ETC.  49 

the  Autumnal  Marrow  squash  has  been  lost,  and  no  one 
can,  for  a  certainty,  tell  when  or  how  this  disappeared,  and 
though  originally  an  admixture  of  other  sorts  was  doubt- 
less the  first  step  towards  this  deterioration,  yet  we  are 
inclined  to  believe  that  a  tendency  to  give  prominency 
and  individuality  to  the  original  admixture,  has  gradually 
borne  under  the  good  traits  of  the  original  Marrow. 

Autumnal  Marrow  Squash. — This  is  also  known  as  the 
Boston  Marrow,  or  Marrow,  it  having  been  a  very  promi- 
nent squash  in  the  markets  of  Boston  for  a  series  of  years. 
A  mongrel  early  variety  of  it  is  also  known  as  the  "  Cam- 
bridge Marrow."  This  squash  was  introduced  to  the 
public  by  Mr.  J.  M.  Ives,  in  the  years  1831-2.     When  in- 


AUTUMNAL  MARROW  SQUASH. 

troduced,  it  was  a  small  sized  squash,  weighing  five  or  six 
pounds,  fine  grained  and  dry,  with  an  excellent  flavor. 
Marketmen  found  that  by  crossing  with  the  African  and 
South  American  varieties,  they  could  increase  the  size  of 
the  original  Marrow;  they  did  this  without  troubling 
themselves  about  any  risk  of  deteriorating  the  quality, 
and  I  doubt  not  that  much  of  the  present  inferior  quality 
of  the  Marrow  squash  is  due  to  this  vicious  crossing.  In 
form  the  Marrow  is  much  like  the  Hubbard,  but  with  less 
distinctive  prominence  in  the  neck  and  calyx.  In  color, 
the  Marrow  is  between  a  lemon  yellow  and  a  rich  orange ; 
3 


50       SQUASHES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC. 

the  skin  is  covered  with  fine  indentations,  giving  it  a  pock- 
marked aj^pearance.  The  body  of  the  squash  is  divided 
into  sections  by  slight  depressions  in  its  longest  di- 
ameter. Under  the  thin  outer  skin,  or  epidermis,  is  a 
thicker  skin  of  a  dark  orange  color.  The  flesh  is  orange 
colored.  The  seeds  are  somewhat  larger  and  thicker  than 
in  the  Hubbard,  and  considerably  larger  but  not  so  thick 
as  in  the  Turban.  In  quality  the  Marrow  of  to-day  varies 
much ;  sometimes  we  find  specimens  that  are  all  that  can 
be  desired,  particularly  as  we  get  near  to  the  original 
type,  (this  has  been  kept  more  nearly  correct  in  Marble- 
head  than  elsewhere),  but  in  its  general  character  the 
Autumnal  Marrow  is  watery,  not  sweet,  and  oftentimes 
deficient  in  flavor  and  fineness  of  texture.  From  its 
great  productiveness,  it  is  a  favorite  squash  with  market- 
men,  and  its  rich  orange  color  and  handsome  form  render 
it  popular  with  those  who  have  not  become  acquainted 
with  the  more  recently  introduced  and  finer  varieties. 
There  are  two  varieties  grown  extensively  for  Boston  mar- 
ket known  as  the  Cambridge  Marrow.  One  of  these  is 
quite  large  in  size,  usually  having  the  green  color  at  the 
calyx,  indicating  a  mongrel  variety  ;  the  other  is  of  me- 
dium size,  and  is  characterized  by  a  brilliant  orange 
color,  that  makes  it  very  attractive  to  the  eye.  Both  of 
them  mature  a  little  earlier  than  the  purer  sort. 

These  three  varieties  of  fleshy  stemmed  squashes,  the 
Hubbard,  American  Turban,  and  Autumnal  Marrow,  in- 
clude most  of  those  raised  for  market  purposes.  There  is 
a  large  number  of  other  varieties,  such  as  the  Valparaiso, 
African,  Honolulu,  Cocoa-nut,  Sweet  Potato,  etc.,  some  of 
which  have  quite  distinct  characteristics,  that  are  more 
or  less  raised  in  the  family  garden,  but  several'of  them 
are  of  inferior  quality,  some  are  hybrid,  and  though  one 
or  two  may  be  desirable  for  the  garden,  yet  none  of  them, 
as  far  as  I  have  made  acquaintance  with  them,  have  char- 
acteristics which  would  invite  their  general  cultivation. 


SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GKOW   THEM,    ETC.  51 

In  that  excellent  work  by  my  friend,  Fearing  Burr, 
"  The  Field  and  Garden  Vegetables  of  America,"  will  be 
found  quite  a  list  of  summer,  fall  and  winter  varieties.  I 
am  often  in  receipt  of  varieties  of  high  local  repute  in  dif- 
ferent sections  of  the  country,  and  it  is  possible  that  some 
of  them  when  tested  may  prove  worthy  of  general  culti- 
vation. 

Passing  to  the  hard  or  woody  stemmed  varieties,  we 
find  included  among  them  the  Winter  Crookneck,  the 
Canada  Crookneck,  Yokohama,  and  Para. 

The  Crooknecks  had  their  day  and  generation  before  the 
introduction  of  the  soft-stemmed  varieties.  They  were  then 
the  standard  sorts,  and  the  kitchens  of  thrifty  farmers  were 
adorned  with  choice  specimens  hanging  suspended  around 
the  walls  by  strips  of  list,  to  be  used  during  the  winter, 
in  the  course  of  the  spring,  and  even  well  into  the  sum- 
mer months.  The  Crooknecks  are  characterized  by  long, 
usually  curved  necks,  terminating  in  a  bulb-like  prominence 
at  the  calyx  end,  which  contains  the  seed.  The  vines  are 
covered  with  rough  spines,  and  in  the  shortness  of  their 
leaf-stalks,  the  smaller  size  and  different  color  of  the  leaves, 
are  readily  distinguished  from  the  soft-stemmed  sorts. 
They  vary  much  in  color  at  the  time  of  the  gathering,  and 
there  is  a  general  tendency  in  all  of  them  to  change  to  a 
yellow  hue  in  *the  course  of  the  winter.  In  quality,  the 
Large  Winter  Crookneck  is  coarse  grained  and  watery, 
while  the  Canada  Crookneck  is  finer  grained,  and  at  times 
quite  dry  and  sweet.  The  Winter  Crookneck  weighs 
from  ten  to  twenty-five  pounds  and  upwards,  and  the  true 
Canada  Crookneck,  which  is  rarely  found  pure,  averages 
from  four  to  six  pounds.  In  keeping  properties,  the 
Crooknecks  excel,  frequently  keeping  in  dry,  warm  apart- 
ments the  year  round,  and,  in  a  few  instances,  two  years. 
When  kept  into  the  summer  the  seeds  are  at  times  found 
to  have  sprouted  within  the  squash. 

The  Crooknecks  are  subject  to  a  kind  of  dry  rot,  par- 


52  SQUASHES,   HOW  TO    GROW  THEM,    ETC. 

ticularly  in  spring,  which  gives  them  a  peculiar  appear- 
ance when  cut,  the  tissue  between  the  cells  having  a  dull, 
white  color,  though  the  fibres 
of  flesh  still  retain  their  bright 
yellow  color.  Worthless  for  table 

use.     The  true  measure  of  the  "ss^l 

length  of  time  a  squash  keeps, 
is  how  long  it  keeps  its  quality , 
and  not  its  mere  structure. 

The  Yokohama  is  compara- 
tively a  new  visitor  from  Japan, 
it  having  been  received  in  this 

•       .1  -,^«~    -.        •»«-  CROOKNECK   SQUASH. 

country  m  the  year  I860,  by  Mr. 

James  Hogg,  from  his  brother  then  residing  at  Yokohama 
in  Japan.  The  vine  is  a  very  free  grower  and  a  good 
yielder,  though  from  the  comparatively  small  size  of  the 
squash,  the  weight  of  the  crop  is  not  large  when  compared 
with  the  Hubbard,  Turban,  or  Marrow.  It  is  quite  flat  in 
shape,  with  somewhat  of  a  depression  at  each  end.  The 
diameters  are  to  each  other  about  as  one  to  three  or 
four.  It  is  deeply  ribbed,  and  the  flesh,  which  is  of  a 
lemon  color,  is  remarkably  thick,  making  it  the  heaviest 
of  all  squashes  in  proportion  to  its  size.  The  flesh  is  very 
fine  grained,  smooth  to  the  taste,  and  has  a  flavor  resem- 
bling the  Crookneck.  With  those  who  like  the  taste  of 
the  Crookneck,  the  Yokohama  will  likely  be  very  popular. 

In  external  color,  before  ripening,  it  is  of  an  intensely 
dark  green,  covered  with  blisters,  like  a  toad's  back ;  as 
it  ripens,  it  begins  to  turn  of  a  light  brown  color  at  both 
the  stem  and  blossom  ends,  and,  after  storing,  it  soon  be- 
comes entirely  of  a  copper-like  color,  and  is  covered  with 
a  slight  bloom.  It  may  be  well  to  start  this  squash  under 
glass,  on  squares  of  turf,  though,  after  an  experience  of 
three  seasons,  I  am  pursuaded  that  it  is  becoming  ac- 
climated ;  indeed,  my  crop  of  last  season  ripened  with  the 


SQUASHES,    HOW  TO    GROW   TIIEM,    ETC.  53 

Hubbard  and  Turban.     The  cultivation  of  the  Yokohama 
is  mostly  confined,  as  yet,  to  private  gardens. 

Para,  or  Polk  Squash. — This  is  a  half-bush  squash. 
In  the  first  stages  of  its  growth,  it  has  a  bush  habit,  and 
sets  its  first  fruit  like  a  bush  squash,  but  later  it  pushes 
out  runners  eight  or  ten  feet  in  length,  and  bears  fruit 
along  them.  The  squash  was  brought  to  this  country 
from  Para,  in  South  America.      In  shape   it  is  oblong; 


PARA,   OR  POLK  SQUASH. 

it  is  ribbed,  of  a  tea-green  color,  excepting  the  portion 
which  rests  on  the  ground,  which  is  of  a  rich  orange 
color.  The  squashes  weigh  about  three  pounds  each. 
They  require  the  whole  season  to  mature,  and  when 
in  good  condition,  the  flesh  is  dry  and  of  a  rich  flavor. 
Like  the  Yokohama,  I  apprehend  they  will  be  very  popular 
with  a  class,  rather  than  with  the  community  at  large. 
Both  the  Yokohama  and  the  Para  can  be  kept  well  into 
the  winter.  I  have  kept  a  Yokohama,  crossed  on  the 
Turban,  fourteen  months,  and  Hubbards,  in  two  instances, 
twelve  months. 

THE    SUMMER    SQUASHES. 

The  remarks  made  relative  to  the  cultivation  of  the  fall 
and  winter  varieties,  will  apply  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
summer  squashes,  with  the  exception  of  the  distance  be- 
tween the  hills;  this,  as  they  are  of  a  bushy  habit,  should 
be  about  five  feet.  In  quality,  the  summer  squashes  have 
but  little  to  recommend  them ;  it  is  principally  their  fresh, 
new  taste  that  makes  them  acceptable  for  the  table.  South 
of  New  York,  the  cultivation  of  squashes  is  confined  al- 


54 

most  wholly  to  the  bush  varieties.  Until  recently,  the 
New  York  market  for  fall  and  winter  squashes  has  been 
supplied  largely  by  the  growers  around  Boston. 

I  find  that  there  is  a  strong  belief  among  prominent 
seedsmen  in  the  Middle  States,  that  the  running  varieties 
of  squashes  will  not  succeed  in  their  section — they  will 
not  form  the  thick,  fleshy  root,  they  say.  We,  in  the 
North,  have  always  looked  upon  the  squash  as*  a  half 
tropical  fruit,  and  anticipated  finding  greater  and  greater 
success  in  its  cultivation,  the  farther  South  it  was  planted. 
It  has  all  the  characteristics  of  a  semi-tropical  plant,  like 
the  tomato  and  melon,  and  should  it  be  true  that  there  is 
such  a  climacteric  limitation,  it  would  be  a  marked  excep- 
tion to  a  general  law.  I  presume  a  canvass  of  my  cor- 
respondence would  settle  the  question,  and  regret  that  I 
have  not  time  to  do  this ;  yet  I  have  but  little  doubt  that, 
under  proper  culture  in  the  South,  our  running  varieties . 
would  do  as  well,  or  better,  than  they  do  North.  It  oc- 
curs to  me,  at  this  moment,  that  Dr.  Phillips,  the  enter- 
prising editor  of  the  Southern  Farmer,  stated  to  me,  in 
the  course  of  correspondence,  that  he  had  raised  them  by 
the  acre  in  Mississippi  with  complete  success. 

The   standard  summer   varieties  are   the   Yellow    and 

White  Bush  Scollop,  often 
called  Pattypan  or  Cym- 
bals, and  the  Summer 
Crookneck.  Of  these  the 
Summer  Crookneck  is  the 
best.  All  of  these  form  a 
shell  as  they  ripen,  and  are 
then  unfit  for  the  table. 
They  should  not  be  cooked 

-\YHITE-BUSII    SCOLLOPED    SQUASII.  „  ,,  in  i        r  1jL  i 

alter  the  shell  can  be  felt  by 
the  thumb-nail.  The  Green  Striped  Bergen  is  an  early 
variety,  quite  popular  in  the  markets  of  New  York.  A 
small  squash,  about  twice  the^ize  of  a  large  orange,  some- 


SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GROW  THEM,    ETC.  55 

what  fluted,  called  Sweet  Potato  Squash,  is  highly  prized 
by  souie  who  are  of  high  repute  among  squash  fanciers. 
Several  of  the  varieties  that  are  grown  as  gourds,  for 
ornamental  purposes,  are  edible,  a  large  proportion  of 
them,  indeed,  as  I  have  found  on  testing  the  largest  of  my 
specimens  before  feeding  to  the  pigs.  As  a  general  rule, 
all  that  are  not  bitter  to  the  taste  are  edible. 

The  Vegetable  Marrow  is  about  the  only  variety  of  the 
squash  family  cultivated  by  our  English  cousins.  With 
them,  it  is  brought  to  the  table  in  the  same  style  as  our 
own  varieties,  or  so  cooked  as  to  form  part  of  a  soup. 

A  friend,  who  resided  some  years  in  England,  informed 
me  that  one  of  the  greatest  novelties  to  an  English  eye 
was  an  Autumnal  Marrow  Squash,  which  he  kept  as  a 
center  piece  on  his  marble  table  for  a  month  or  more. 

The  Custard  Squash,  one  of  the  hard  stemmed  sorts,  of 
a  yellowish  cream  color,  oblong  in  shape,  deeply  ribbed, 
weighing  from  twelve  to  twenty  pounds,  is  quite  a  favorite. 

»      ENEMIES  OF   THE  VINE. 

The  insect  enemies  are  the  striped  bug  (Galeruca 
vittata),  or  pumpkin  bug  (Coreus  tristis),  and  the  insect 
that  produces  the  squash  maggot.  The  striped  bug  ap- 
pears about  the  first  of  June,  and  several  broods  being 
hatched  in  the  course  of  the  summer,  they  continue  their 
depredations  throughout  the  season.  After  the  vines 
have  pushed  their  runners  two  or  three  feet,  their  vigor 
is  such  that  the  after  depredations  of  this  little  iiioect  is 
of  no  practical  importance — with  the  exception  of  injury 
occasionally  done  to  immature  squashes,  the  upper  sur- 
face of  which  are  sometimes  found  covered  with  them,  and 
hundreds  of  little  cell  like  holes  are  eaten  out.  The  injury 
done  by  the  striped  bug  is  mostly  confined  to  the  period 
in  the  growth  of  the  vine  between  its  first  appearance 
above  the  ground  and  the  formation  of  the  fifth  leaf.  They 


56        SQUASHES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC. 

feed  on  both  the  upper  and  under  surface  of  the  leaf,  and, 
sucking  its  juices,  soon  reduce  it  to  a  dry,  dead  net- work. 
The  eating  of  the  seed  leaves  of  the  plant,  the  two  leaves 
which  first  appear,  is  not  always  fatal,  provided  the  leaf 
that  starts  from  between  them  is  uninjured ;  if  this,  how- 
ever, is  eaten  out,  for  all  practical  purposes  the  plant  is  de- 
stroyed, and  should  be  pulled  up  and  thrown  away,  no 
matter  if  the  seed  leaves  are  wholly  uninjured.  In  those  lo- 
calities where  the  striped  bug  is  not  very  prevalent,  the 
greatest  harm  of  its  ravages  is  sometimes  prevented  by 
planting  the  seed  about  the  tenth  of  May,  should  the 
weather  permit,  which  will  enable  the  vines  to  get  so  far 
along  as  usually  to  be  beyond  the  reach  of  serious  in- 
jury. The  preventives  to  the  ravages  of  this  little  insect, 
which  attacks  the  whole  vine  family,  including  cucumbers 
and  melons,  are  numerous.  They  may  nearly  all  be 
brought  under  two  classes  :  those  which  act  mechanically, 
by  covering  the  leaves  so  as  to  make  them  inaccessible  to 
its  punctures,  and  those  which  repel  the  insect  by  their 
disagreeable  odors  or  pungent  flavor.  The  best  protectors 
of  the  first  class  are  hand  glasses,  little  frame-works 
covered  with  millinet  or  some  very  coarse  cotton  cloth, 
or,  as  this  insect  usually  flies  but  a  few  inches  above  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  any  box,  circular  or  square, 
from  which  the  bottom  has  been  removed,  having 
sides  about  ten  inches  in  height.  The  remedies  of 
the  second  class  are  those  which  are  principally  relied 
on  where  squashes  are  cultivated  on  a  large  scale.  These 
should  be  applied  early  in  the  morning  when  the  dew  is 
on,  or  directly  after  a  rain,  when  the  leaves  are  wet,  that 
they  may  adhere.  In  using  them  a  small  fine  sieve  will 
be  found  very  convenient.  The  best  of  these  remedies  I 
name  in  the  order  of  their  popularity  in  great  squash- 
growing  districts.  Ground  plaster,  oyster-shell  lime,  air 
slaked  lime,  ashes,  soot,  charcoal  dust,  and  common  dust. 
Plaster  and  oyster-shell  lime  I  consider  of  equal  value,  and 


SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GROW   THEM,    ETC.  57 

the  use  of  protectors  in  my  own  grounds  is  confined  to 
one  or  the  other  of  these.  Against  air  slaked  lime,  which 
is  very  commonly  used,  there  is  this  serious  objection. 

However  thoroughly  it  may  be  air-slaked,  it  still  re- 
mains sufficiently  caustic  in  its  nature  to  seriously  in- 
jure the  leaves,  causing  more  harm  by  its  burning  prop- 
erties than  good,  by  preventing  the  ravages  of  the 
bug.  I  have  seen  an  acre  of  thrifty  vines  entirely  de- 
stroyed, through  the  caustic  properties  developed  in  the 
lime  by  a  gentle  shower  that  fell  just  after  its  appli- 
cation ;  the  leaves  were  so  burned  that  they  rubbed  to  -dust 
in  the  finger.  Charcoal  dust  and  soot  not  only  protect 
the  vines,  but  serve  also  to  draw  the  heat  of  the  sun,  often- 
times very  grateful  to  the  young  vines  in  the  early  season 
of  the  year ;  while  soot  and  ashes  in  all  localities,  and 
plaster  and  lime  in  some  localities,  as  they  are  washed 
from  the  leaves  by  the  rain,  serve  as  a  stimulating  manure 
to  the  young  plants.  The  advantages  of  plaster  and  oyster- 
shell  lime  are,  that  being  very  finely  powdered,  they  can  be 
easily  dusted  over  the  vine,  while  their  white  color  has  the 
advantage  that  it  can  be  seen  at  a  glance  whether  the  leaves 
are  fully  covered.  Common  dust  sounds  cheap  as  a  pro- 
tector, but  the  trouble  of  collecting  and  separating  from 
stones  that  might  otherwise  injure  the  leaves,  is  more 
than  an  onset  to  the  cost  of  other  articles.  These  pro- 
tectors should  be  applied  as  soon  as  the  young  plant  breaks 
ground,  before  it  has  fairly  shaken  off  the  shell  of  the  seed, 
as  the  insect  is  often  at  work  then,  and  the  application 
should  be  renewed  after  every  shower,  the  object  being  to 
keep  every  leaf  entirely  covered  as  far  as  practicable  until 
the  fifth  leaf  is  developed,  when  the  plants  are  usually  be- 
yond reach  of  injury  from  this  little  enemy,  provided  the 
hills  have  been  supplied  with  rich,  stimulating  manure,  suf- 
ficient to  give  them  a  rapid  growth.  Among  this  class  of 
remedies,  watering  the  plants  with  a  decoction  of  tobacco, 
a  little  kerosene  oil,  stirred  in  water  while  being  applied, 
3* 


58  SQUASHES,    HOW  TO    GROW  THEM,    ETC. 

(the  proper  proportion  of  this  had  better  be  tested  by  experi- 
ment), applying  water  in  which  hen  manure  or  guano  has 
been  dissolved,  sprinkling  the  leaves  with  a  mixture  of 
wheaten  flour  and  red  pepper,  or  snuff,  or  sulphur,  etc., 
etc.,  have  been  found  efficacious  by  various  persons.  Dr. 
Harris  states  that  these  insects  fly  by  night  as  well  as  by 
day,  and  are  attracted  by  the  light  of  burning  splinters  of 
pine  knots,  or  of  staves  of  tar  barrels.  As  insects  breathe 
through  pores  in  their  bodies,  such  strong  ammoniacal  odors 
as  are  given  off  from  a  liquid  in  which  hen  manure, 
guano,  or  kerosene  have  been  mixed,  must  tend  to  suffo- 
cate and  so  repel  them. 

As  new  land  is  much  less  infested  with  bugs  than  old 
land,  in  sections  where  these  insects  are  very  troublesome, 
it  will  be  better  to  break  up  sward. 

In  fighting  these  pests,  where  but  few  hills  are  cultiva- 
ted, pieces  of  board  or  shingle  laid  around  the  young 
plants,  just  abo\e  the  surface  of  the  ground,  will  collect 
many  on  their  undersides  over-night,  and  by  examining 
them  early  in  the  morning,  many  can  be  brushed  off  into  hot 
water.  I  don't  think  much  of  the  plan  of  killing  them 
about  the  vines ;  the  old  saying  that  "  when  one  is  killed 
fifty  will  come  to  his  funeral"  appears  to  have  a  savor  of 
truth  in  it,  for  I  have  noted  that  where  I  have  killed  them 
about  the  vines,  there  seems  to  be  no  end  to  the  business ; 
with  constant  attention,  still  the  bugs  appear  to  be  about 
as  plenty  as  at  first.  I  think  that  the  odor  from  the  dead 
ones  attracts  others. 

The  large  black  bug  I  consider  rather  a  pumpkin  than 
a  squash  bug,  as  in  this  section,  and  in  others,  as  far  as  my 
knowledge  extends,  where  the  cultivation  of  the  pump- 
kin has  been  given  up  for  a  number  of  years,  it  has  al- 
most entirely  disappeared.  Occasionally  a  leaf  of  a  vine 
will  be  seen  pretty  well  covered  with  the  rascals  late  in  the 
season,  but  so  scarce  are  they  that  for  several  years  past 
I  have  not  seen,  on  an  average,  more  than  one  a  season 


SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GROW  THE^r,    ETC.  59 

on  my  vines,  and  I  cultivate  several  acres  annually.  "When 
the  plants  are  young,  they  are  likely  to  be  found,  if  at  all, 
below  the  elementary  leaves,  sucking  out  the  juices  from 
the  vine  itself.  For  these  fellows  there  is  nothing  like  fin- 
ger work.  I  have  known  an  instance  in  the  interior  where 
they  were  so  numerous  on  Pumpkin  vines  planted  among 
com,  that  the  mere  smell  of  them  acted  as  an  emetic  to 
three  separate  sets  of  hands  that  attempted  to  hoe  the 
corn  patch. 

The  squash  maggot  is  hatched  from  the  egg  of  an  insect 
bearing  a  close  resemblance  to  the  lady-bug,  but  of  a  size 
considerably  larger.  The  eggs  are  usually  deposited  near 
the  root  of  the  vine,  within  an  inch  or  two  of  the  ground ; 
and  in  seasons  when  this  insect  abounds,  eggs  are  depos- 
ited at  the  junction  of  the  leaf  stalks  with  the  vine  along 
some  six  or  eight  feet  of  vine.  As  soon  as  the  egg  is 
hatched,  the  maggot  begins  to  eat  his  way  through  the 
center  of  the  vine,  and  his  boring  will  be  seen  outside  his 
hole,  like  those  of  an  apple-tree  borer.  The  vines  thus  at- 
tacked will  wither  under  a  mid-day  sun,  and  the  injured 
ones  are  thus  readily  detected.  Squashes  on  such  vines 
usually  make  but  little  growth,  and  the  vines  ultimately 
die.  If  the  presence  of  the  borer  'is  early  detected,  he  can 
sometimes  be  killed  by  thrusting  a  wire,  or  stout  straw 
into  his  hole ;  sometimes  the  vine  is  slit  open  and  the  in- 
truder found  and  killed,  but  vines  thus  treated  do  not 
always  recover.  If  the  slit  portion  is  covered  with  earth 
and  pegged  down,  sometimes  but  little  injury  is  done.  I 
have  taken  thirteen  borers  from  a  single  vine,  some  of  the 
largest  being  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  an  inch 
in  length. 

It  happens,  at  times,  after  the  vines  have  made  a  vigorous 
growth  of  several  feet,  they  suddenly  wilt  and  die  with- 
out any  perceptible  cause;  no  insects  are  to  be  found  on 
the  leaves,  there  are  no  borers  in  the  vines,  and  on  exam- 
ining the  roots,  everything  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye 


GO  SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GEOW   TIIE3I,   ETC. 

appears  sound  and  healthy.  I  am  at  a  loss  to  explain  the 
cause  of  this,  unless  it  be  that  the  vine  has  been  poisoned 
by  something  that  it  has  taken  into  its  circulation.  I  have 
picked  half-grown  plums  from  a  tree  that  tasted  as  salt  as 
brine.  The  tree  had  received  a  heavy  manuring  with  salt, 
and  ultimately  died,  proving  that  there  is  such  a  thing  in 
the  vegetable  world  as  a  tree  poisoning  itself  by  feeding 
to  excess  on  one  variety  of  food  ;  and  what  is  true  of  a 
tree  may  be  true  of  a  vine. 

WOODCHUCKS  AND  MUSKRATS. 

On  low  land,  near  water  courses,  Muskrats  will  some- 
times make  sad  havoc  with  the  growing  fruit ;  while  on 
uplands,  the  Woodchuck  is  sometimes  exceedingly  destruc- 
tive. If  the  portion  troubled  by  muskrats  is  of  small  area, 
the  squashes  can  be  protected  by  taking  boxes  of  sufficient 
size,  cutting  a  narrow  slit  in  their  sides,  and  setting  the 
squashes  in  them,  having  the  vines  enter  and  go  out  of 
the  narrow  slits.  When  muskrats  begin  on  a  squash,  as 
far  as  I  have  observed,  they  make  a  finish  of  it  before  in- 
juring others. 

Woodchucks  are  exceedingly  destructive  ;  they  rarely 
entirely  devour  a  squash,  but  gnaw  more  or  less  all  in  the 
vicinity  of  their  burrows.  If  these  burrows  are  not  con- 
veniently near  the  squash  patch,  they  will  leave  the  old 
and  make  new  ones  close  by,  or  even  in  the  midst  of  the 
squash  field.  The  wounds  made  by  their  broad  teeth  soon 
heal,  if  the  squashes  have  not  reached  their  growth,  and 
the  gnawing  has  not  been  through  the  squash,  but  the 
crop  is  much  injured  for  market  purposes,  and  the  squashes 
are  apt  to  rot  at  the  gnawed  places  after  they  are  stored. 
I  have  had  a  ton  injured  in  this  way  one  season  by  a  sin- 
gle woodchuck.  A  tbousand-and-one  ways  are  given  to 
catch  and  destroy  the  woodchucks ;  traps  set  a  little  way 
down  in  their  holes,  and  carefully  hidden  with  earth,  and 


SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GEOW   THEM,    ETC.  61 

apples  containing  arsenic,  rolled  into  their  burrows,  are 
among  those  that  have  proved  successful.  It  is  worth 
while  to  offer  five  dollars  for  the  skin  of  a  woodcliuck  that 
has  commenced  depredations  in  a  squash  field. 

SAVING    SEED. 

In  selecting  squashes  for  stock  seed,  take,  while  the 
squashes  are  in  the  field,  or  immediately  after  they  are 
gathered,  neither  the  largest  nor  the  smallest  specimens. 
The  largest  specimens  are  very  tempting,  particularly  so 
if  they  have  the  true  form,  appear  to  be  well  ripened,  and, 
if  Hubbards, have  a  hard  shell;  but  experience  has  proved 
that  these,  as  a  class,  are  most  likely  to  be  of  impure 
blood.  About  a  year  ago  two  of  my  neighbors,  who  had 
become  famous  for  their  large  Hubbard  squashes,  cnme  to 
me  to  get  a  new  stock  of  seed  to  start  from ;  they  stated 
that  within  a  few  years  a  large  proportion  of  their  squashes 
grew  soft-shelled.  Now,  as  they  had  made  it  a  rule  to  se- 
lect the  largest  specimens  for  seed,  I  have  no  doubt  but 
that  the  admixture  that  was  evident,  from  the  loss  of  the 
hard  shell  characteristic  of  the  true  Hubbard,  had  crept  in 
that  way.  Every  old  squash  grower  is  aware  of  the  great 
change  that  has  come  over  the  Autumnal  Marrow  squash. 
When  introduced,  it  was  of  small  size,  weighing  about  five 
or  six  pounds,  exceedingly  dry,  fine  grained,  and  rich 
flavored.  Now  its  quality  is  uncertain,  for  the  most  part 
greatly  deteriorated  below  the  original  standard,  but  it 
groins  to  double  the  average  size  of  the  original  squash.  I 
have  not  the  slightest  doubt  but  this  deterioration  is  due 
to  the  vicious  practice  of  saving  seed  stock  from  the  largest 
specimens  grown,  these  specimens  having  got  their  extra 
size  from  larger  and  coarser  varieties  of  the  African  or 
South  American  type.  If  any  one  has  doubts  of  this  theory, 
he  can  easily  satisfy  himself  by  examining  the  calyx  end  of 
a  crop  of  the  largest  sized  variety  of  Marrow  squashes, 


62        SQUASHES,  HOW  TO  GKOW  THEM,  ETC. 

when  he  will  find   a   proportion  of  them  with  the  green 
color  stolen  from  the  African  or  South  American  family. 

Having  decided  on  medium  sized  specimens  for  seed 
stock,  select  those  that  are  most  strongly  marked  exter- 
nally with  the  characteristics  of  the  variety.  If  a  Hub- 
bard, it  should  be  very  thick  and  hard  shelled,  of  a  dark 
green  color,  and  the  rougher  and  more  nubbed  the  better. 
Let  it  have  a  good  neck  and  calyx  end,  and  be  as  heavy 
in  proportion  to  its  size  as  possible.  The  stem  of  both 
this  and  the  Marrow  squash  should  stand  at  quite  an 
angle  with  the  squash,  and  have  a  depression  where  it 
joins,  as  this  indicates  an  early  ripened  specimen.  The 
flesh  should  be  hard,  fine  grained  and  thick,  and  not 
stringy  on  the  inside.  See  to  it  that  the  squash  swells 
out  to  a  fair  degree  in  the  middle,  and  has  an  average 
proportion  of  seed.  Having  selected  such  specimens 
as  these,  bring  them  to  the  final  test  of  the  dinner  table, 
and  reject  every  one  that  does  not  there  show  all  the  char- 
acteristics of  dryness,  flavor,  and  fineness,  that  belong  to  a 
first-rate  specimen. 

I  know  that  the  injunction  to  select  specimens  that 
swell  out  to  a  fair  degree  in  the  middle,  is  contrary  to  the 
course  pursued  by  most  farmers ;  yet  I  advise  it  on  the 
ground  that  such  squashes,  having  a  good  quantity  of  seed, 
have  superior  vitality  and  individuality,  and  are  nearer  na- 
ture's ideal  of  perfection  in  the  animal  and  vegetable  king- 
dom, being  better  able  to  maintain  the  species. 

I  have  seen  the  working  of  this  law  most  conspicuously 
in  the  Crookneck  family  of  squashes.  The  cultivator's 
type  of  a  fine  market  squash  is  one  with  as  large  a  neck 
and  as  small  a  seed  end  as  possible.  Following  out  this 
idea,  they  select  for  seed,  specimens  with  a  small  seed  end, 
and  the  result,  as  far  as  I  have  observed,  has  been  that  the 
squash,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  has  deteriorated  and 
become  worthless. 


SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GKOW  THEM,    ETC.  63 

When  to  Take  Out  the  Seed.— We  have  advised 
that  the  specimens  for  seed  purposes  be  selected  early 
in  the  season,  because  later,  particularly  when  they 
have  been  exposed  to  a  high  degree  of  heat,  the  color 
becomes  so  changed  that  the  work  of  selection  becomes 
far  more  difficult.  The  next  question  to  discuss  is, 
when  shall  we  seed  them?  Contrary  to  the  generally 
received  opinion,  the  seed  is  not  ripe  when  the  squash  is — in 
other  words,  after  the  squash  has  completed  its  growth, 
the  vines  dying  naturally  and  the  stem  being  dead  and 
hardened,  still  the  seeds  are  not  fully  matured  till  some- 
time after  the  squash  is  stored.  The  length  of  time  will 
vary  with  the  season,  it  being  longer  in  a  wet  season  and 
shorter  in  a  dry  one,  the  two  extremes  being  from  one  to 
three  months.  If  seeds  are  taken  out  as  soon  as  the  squash 
is  gathered,  though  at  the  time  they  present  a  very  plump 
appearance,  yet  if  they  are  examined  after  they  are  dry,  a 
large  proportion  will  be  found  to  be  plump  only  on  one 
side,  most  of  them  to  be  twisted,  and  not  a  few  of  them 
entirely  wanting  in  meat.  When  seeding  large  lots  for 
market,  I  have  found  the  percentage  of  loss  in  the  weight 
of  the  seed  quite  an  important  matter,  it  being  as  high  as 
one-fifth.  After  the  squash  is  gathered,  the  process  of 
ripening  the  seed  goes  on  until  the  entrails  are  absorbed, 
or  eaten  up  by  the  seed,  and  the  seed  continue  to  increase 
in  plumpness  and  weight  until  their  entrails  are  so  far  con- 
sumed that  only  so  much  remains  as  is  necessary  to  hold 
together  the  seed  structure.  This  final  ripeness  is  indicated 
by  the  seed  compartments  in  the  squash  becoming  dis- 
tinct, and  the  attachments  peeling  off  like  the  skin  from 
an  orange.  If,  when  the  squash  is  opened,  the  seed  are  em- 
bedded in  a  hard,  dense  mass  of  growth  within,  that 
does  not  readily  separate  from  the  squash,  they  will  be 
twice  as  hard  to  clean,  and  will  weigh  full  twenty  per 
cent,  short  of  the  weight  of  well  ripened  seed  when  cleaned. 
The  seed  is  cleaned  from  the  intestines  by  being  either 


CJ:  SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GEOW   THEM,    ETC. 

squeezed  out  or  washed  out.  If  squeezed  out,  it  will  dry 
sooner,  and  when  rubbed  and  winnowed  when  dry  will 
have  a  more  velvety  look  than  when  washed.  Where  a 
large  quantity  is  to  be  handled,  it  is  cleaned  more  quickly 
by  washing  than  by  rubbing,  but  it  requires  to  be  dried 
upon  a  comparatively  clean  surface ;  whereas  rubbed  seed 
can  be  dried  upon  any  surface,  no  matter  how  dirty,  as 
the  refuse  squash  that  remains  adhering  to  it  effectually 
protects  it  from  all  injury.  Washed  seed  should  not  be 
spread  over  one  deep,  and  squeezed  seed  not  over  one  and 
a  half  deep ;  each  should  be  stirred  after  the  second  day. 
If  washed  seed  is  stirred  earlier,  it  is  apt  to  be  injured  by 
the  tearing  of  the  epidermis,  which,  for  the  first  day  or 
two,  adheres  strongly  to  the  surface  it  is  spread  on.  The 
temperature  for  drying  seed  should  not  be  over  about  one 
hundred  degress,  and  better  less  than  higher.  Never  dry 
seed  in  an  oven,  or  very  near  a  stove.  The  upper  shelf 
of  a  kitchen  closet,  or  a  plate  on  the  mantle  piece,  not  too 
near  the  stove  funnel,  are  each  of  them  handy,  though 
housewives  will  sometimes  say  they  are  not  suitable 
places — if  mice  are  apt  to  gnaw  the  seed  in  the  closet, 
or  children  to  see  them  on  the  mantle,  for  a  certainty  I  will 
not  dispute  them.  When  the  quantity  to  be  cleaned  is 
small,  the  sooner  it  is  attended  to,  after  the  entrails  have 
been  removed  from  the  squash,  the  brighter  the  seed  will 
look ;  but  if  the  quantity  is  large,  by  letting  the  mass  stand 
one  or  two  days,  until  fermentation  begins  and  the  entrails 
are  partly  decayed,  the  seed  can  be  cleaned  with  far  greater 
expedition.  Much  care  and  some  experience  is  requisite 
to  determine  how  far  fermentation  can  be  allowed  to  ad- 
vance. As  a  general  rule,  if,  on  thrusting  the  hand  into 
the  middle  of  the  mass,  it  feels  milk  warm,  it  should  be  at 
once  mixed  well  together,  and  the  whole  be  washed  out 
within  six  hours.  The  great  danger  in  permitting  fer- 
mentation to  advance  too  far  is  losing  the  white,  ivory-like 
epidermis  of  the  seed,  thus  destroying  much  of  their  beauty, 


SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GROW  THEM,   ETC.  65 

and  lowering  their  value  for  market  purposes.  In  washing 
the  seed,  the  water  used  may  be  made  about  milk  warm,  and 
so  soon  as  they  have  been  squeezed  out  of  the  entrails, 
skim  them  off  the  surface,  dropping  them  into  a  sieve 
about  as  coarse  as  a  common  coal  sieve ;  when  this  is  nearly 
full,  dash  over  them  a  couple  of  buckets  of  water,  giving 
them  immediately  a  quick  shaking,  which  will  tend  to 
work  out  through  the  meshes  fragments  of  the  entrails  that 
were  taken  out  with  them.  If  the  hand  is  thrust  into  a 
mass  of  freshly  washed  seed,  it  will  collect  a  good  many 
pieces  of  the  entrails.  After  pouring  the  water  on  the 
seed,  incline  the  sieve  at  a  sharp  angle,  in  order  to  drain 
off  the  water.  After  they  are  well  drained,  pour  them 
out  on  a  large  piece  of  soft  cotton  cloth,  and  rub  and 
roll  them  well  to  absorb  as  much  of  the  moisture  as  possi- 
ble. Now  spread  as  above  directed.  Two  good  hands, 
with  seed  in  the  right  state,  will  sometimes  wash  out  not 
far  from  one  hundred  pounds  of  seed  in  a  day. 

When  are  Squash  Seed  Sufficiently  Dry  1— It  took  me  a 
couple  of  years  to  learn  a  very  simple  rule  by  which  this 
can  be  infallibly  determined ;  meanwhile  I  suffered  a  great 
deal  of  anxiety,  took  a  great  deal  of  extra  care,  (I  got  out 
twenty-six  hundred  pounds  of  squash  seed  one  season,)  and 
yet  after  all  had  a  feeling  of  uncertainty  in  the  premises. 
The  ordinary  way  is  to  call  squash  seed  dry  when  the  en- 
veloping skin  has  sejmrated  from  the  seed,  and  the  seed 
itself  is  much  contracted  and  has  a  dry  look.  If  the  tem- 
perature to  which  it  has  been  exposed  is  quite  low, 
this  is  a  pretty  safe  guide,  but  if  it  has  been  dried  at  a 
somewhat  high  temperature — though  the  seeds  may  rustle 
with  quite  a  dry  sound  when  handled,  yet  appearance 
is  a  very  deceitful  guide — and  if  such  seed  are  packed 
in  barrels,  they  will  be  very  likely  to  sweat,  and  when 
turned  out,  come  out  in  caked  masses,  and  if  left  together, 
will  soon  become  musty.     Squash  seed,  to  be  really  dry, 


66  SQUASHES,    HOW   TO   GKOW   THEItf,    ETC. 

must  be  so  in  the  meat  as  well  as  in  the  shell,  and  this 
can  be  in  a  moment  determined  by  endeavoring  to  bend 
them.  If  they  are  pliable,  they  are  not  yet  sufficiently 
dry ;  if  they  snap  instead  of  bending,  they  can  be  safely 
stored  for  future  nse. 

How  long  will  Squash  Seed  keep  their  Vitality  ?— Squash 
seed,  like  all  other  seed,  are  best  kept  in  a  cool  place, 
where  the  air  is  dry  and  the  temperature  is  as  even  as  pos- 
sible. I  have  found  that  of  the  same  lot  of  seed,  those  which 
were  kept  in  an  open  bag  did  not  retain  their  vitality  as 
long  by  a  year  as  those  which  were  kept  in  the  same  bag, 
but  put  up  in  paper  packages. 

I  have  known  squash  seed  to  be  fairly  good  at  six  years 
old,  and  again  to  be  worthless  when  but  three  years  old, 
and  with  no  perceptible  difference  in  the  getting  out  and 
method  of  keeping  of  the  two  lots.  I  would  lay  down 
the  rule  to  always  test  squash  seed  before  planting,  if  it 
be  over  two  years  old.  This  can  be  easily  done  by  putting 
a  few  in  a  cup,  with  water  sufficient  to  swell  them,  covering 
them  with  some  cotton  wool,  to  prevent  evaporation,  and 
placing  the  cup  where  the  heat  is  gentle,  near  the  stove 
or  on  the  upper  shelf  of  a  closet.  , 

If  the  oil  that  enters  into  the  composition  of  the  meat 
of  the  squash  seed  has  become  rancid,  the  vegetative  power 
of  the  seed  is  destroyed.  This  is  easily  determined  by 
breaking  the  seed,  when  the  meat  will  be  of  a  dark  color, 
and  have  a  rancid  taste.  Under  such  circumstances,  the 
shell  of  the  spoiled  seed  will  be  usually  darker  colored  than 
that  of  good  seed.  In  a  lot  of  seed  saved  at  the  same  time, 
a  portion  will  be  spoiled,  while  the  remainder  will  readily 
vegetate,  and  some  that  to  the  eye  and  taste  appear  to  be 
perfectly  sound,  will  prove  to  be  utterly  worthless.  The 
cause  of  the  difference  in  either  case  I  do  not  know. 

The  proportion  of  seed  and  entrails  of  squashes  to  their 
entire  weight  is  less  than  is  generally  supposed.     By  tests, 


SQUASHES,    HOW   TO    GROW   THEM,   ETC.  67 

applied  towards  the  close  of  February,  a  few  years  ago,  I 
found  that  the  weight  of  seed  and  entrails  to  the  entire 
squash,  in  the  Turban,  was  as  65  to  1000 ;  and,  in  the  Hub- 
bard, as  55  to  1000.  At  that  date  the  entrails  had  less 
weight  than  they  would  have  shown  earlier  in  the  season. 


INSTINCTS  AND   HABITS   OF    SQUASH  YINES. 

It  seems  hardly  fitting  to  close  this  treatise  without 
alluding  to  something  higher  than  the  mere  pecuniary  or 
culinary  value  of  the  squash  family.  In  common  with  all 
the  vegetable  world,  it  has  instincts  which  are  both, 
curious  and  wonderful.  How  singular  it  is  that  roots  have 
power  to  push  through  the  soil  directly  to  the  spot  where 
the  best  food  is  found,  descending,  if  necessary,  below  the 
plane  of  growth,  or  ascending  above  it  to  the  very  surface 
and  developing  a  perfect  mist  of  rootlets  to  catch  up  the 
decaying  particles  found  under  a  small  heap  of  rubbish  ! 
Still  more  wonderful  are  some  of  the  instincts  of  the  vine 
itself.  Each  tendril  stretches  out  to  catch  hold  of,  and  fasten 
to  something  by  which  it  can  support  the  vine,  and  rarely, 
if  ever,  will  it  ma^ke  the  mistake  of  catching  hold  of  any 
but  the  best  supporter  within  reach.  Yet  more  and  higher 
even  than  this  is  the  instinct  they  develop.  They  not  only 
reach  out  for  a  support,  and  make  selection  of  the  object  to 
which  to  cling,  but  they  will  vary  the  direction  of  their 
growth  through  quite  a  number  of  degrees  in  pursuit  of 
the  particular  object  they  have  selected.  To  see  this 
wonderful  phenomenon  in  its  most  striking  aspect,  select  a 
vine  of  some  one  of  the  mammoth  varieties,  under  cir- 
cumstances in  which  its  most  vigorous  growth  will  be 
developed.  Let  every  stick,  weed,  or  the  like,  be  removed 
from  the  vicinity  of  the  main  runner,  and  then  thrust  firmly 
into  the  ground  a  slip  of  shingle,  not  "over  half  an  inch 
wide,  on  one  side  of  the  vine,  a  few  inches  beyond  the  out- 
stretched tendril  that  is  always  found  near  the  extremity, 


68  SQUASHES,   HOW   TO    GROW  THEM     ETC. 

noting  with  care  at  the  same  time  the  direction  in 
which  the  extremity  of  the  vine  points.  Within  twenty- 
four  hours  it  will  be  found  that  the  vine  has  turned 
from  its  former  course,  towards  the  side  on  which  the 
shingle  is  placed,  while  the  tendril  has  turned  towards  the 
shingle  and  perhaps  found  and  grasped  it!  In  proof  that 
this  is  no  mere  chance  event,  let  the  slip  of  shingle  be  now 
removed,  and  placed  in  the  same  relation  to  the  vine  as 
before,  but  on  the  opposite  side.  "Within  twenty-four 
hours  the  vine  will  be  found  to  have  turned  from  its  former 
course  and  to  be  inclined  towards  the  side  on  which  the 
shingle  is  placed,  while  the  tendril  on  that  side  has  shown 
a  corresponding  instinct.  Then  study  the  tendril.  It  is 
most  admirably  adapted  for  its  office ;  it  is  usually  a  com- 
pound spiral,  one-half  of  it  winding  to  the  right  and  the 
other  half  of  it  to  the  left,  thus  combining  the  greatest 
strength  with  the  greatest  possible  elasticity.  As  another 
illustration  of  its  wonderful  instincts,  I  have  seen  a  squash 
vine  run  about  ten  feet  along  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
keeping  its  extremity  within  a  few  inches  of  the  surface, 
until  it  passed  under  the  projecting  limb  of  a  pear  tree, 
which  was  about  four  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  earth ; 
here  it  stretched  up  almost  vertically  towards  the  tree, 
until  it  had  almost  reached  it,  when,  not  having  suf- 
ficient stamina  to  support  it  to  a  further  effort,  it  fell 
over  towards  the  ground,  forming  an  arch.  It  imme- 
diately turned  up  with  a  second  effort  to  reach  the  tree, 
made  a  second  failure  and  formed  a  second  arch,  and  with 
still  another  failure  a  third  arch,  by  which  time  the  ex- 
tremity had  passed  out  from  under  the  tree,  when  it  kept 
on  its  horizontal  growth  the  same  as  before  it  had  reached 
the  tree!  Such  instincts  are  wonderful.  How  did  the  vine 
know  the  tree  was  above  it,  or  that  the  slip  of  shingle  was 
at  either  the  right  or  left  of  it  ? 

During  the  best  growing  weather  the  growth  of  the 
vine  is  very  rapid.     I  have  found,  by  actual  measurement, 


SQUASHES,  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM,  ETC.        69 

that  a  vine  of  the  mammoth  variety  grew  above  fourteen 
inches  in  twenty-four  hours.  Sometimes,  during  a  season 
of  drouth,  a  surprising  tenacity  of  life  is  displayed.  I  well 
remember  one  piece  of  vines  growing  on  a  shallow  spot 
above  a  ledge,  where,  during  a  season  of  severe  drouth,  I 
could  find  nothing  but  earth  as  dry  as  dust,  close  down  to 
the  ledge ;  yet  these  vines,  for  more  than  a  week,  would 
wilt  and  apparently  dry  up  .each  day,  to  renew  themselves 
with  the  dews  over  night.  I  have  very  rarely  (and  I  have 
often  examined  them  for  this,)  found  the  tendrils  of  the 
squash  vine  seizing  on  the  Apple  of  Peru,  (Stramonium,)  a 
large  weed  quite  common  near  the  sea  shore,  of  disagree- 
able odor  and  poisonous  in  its  nature,  wThen  taken  inter- 
nally. Now,  the  Apple  of  Peru  is  very  common  in  our 
squash  fields,  and  presents  the  most  stable  support  of  all  the 
weeds  of  the  field.     Then  why  this  apparent  antipathy  ? 

I  have  endeavored  to  make  my  little  treatise  as  complete 
a  manual  as  possible.  If,  from  the  directions  given,  so  de- 
licious a  vegetable  as  the  squash  shall  be  more  generally 
and  more  successfully  cultivated,  I  shall  be  well  pleased. 


THE 

SMALL    FRUIT    CULTURIST. 


BY 


ANDREW   S.  FULLER. 

A 

Beautifully   Illustrated. 

We  have  heretofore  had  no  work  especially  devoted  to  small 
fruits,  and  certainly  no  treatises  anywhere  that  give  the  information 
contained  in  this.  It  is  to  the  advantage  of  special  works  that  the 
author  can  say  all  that  he  has  to  say  on  any  subject,  and  not  be 
restricted  as  to  space,  as  he  must  be  in  those  works  that  cover  the 
culture  of  all  fruits — great  and  small. 

This  book  covers  the  whole  ground  of  Propagating  Small  Fruits, 
their  Culture,  Varieties,  Packing  for  Market,  etc.  While  very  full  on 
the  other  fruits,  the  Currants  and  Raspberries  have  been  more  care- 
fully elaborated  than  ever  before,  and  in  this  important  part  of  his 
book,  the  author  has  had  the  invaluable  counsel  of  Charles  Downing. 
The  chapter  on  gathering  and  packing  the  fruit  is  a  valuable  one, 
and  in  it  are  figured  all  the  baskets  and  boxes  now  in  common  use. 
The  book  is  very  finely  and  thoroughly  illustrated,  and  makes  an 
admirable  companion  to  the  Grape  Culturist,  by  the  same  author. 


CONTENTS: 

Chap.     I.  Barberry.  Chap.  VII.  Gooseberry. 

Chap.  II.  Strawberry.  Chap.  VIII.  Cornelian  Cherry. 

Chap.  III.  Raspberry.  Chap.     IX.  Cranberry. 

Chap.  IV.  Blackberry.  Chap.      X.  Huckleberry. 

Chap.    V.  Dwarf  Cherry.  Chap.     XI.  Sheperdia. 

Chap.  VI.  Currant.  Chap.  XII.  Preparation     fop. 

GATHERING  FRUIT. 


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AMERICAN     POMOLOGY. 
APPLES. 


DBy   33oct.  JOHN    A.  WAJRDEri, 

PRESIDENT  OHIO  POMOLOGICAL  SOCIETY;  VICE-PRESIDENT  AMERICAN"  P0M0L0GICAL 
SOCIETY. 

293    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

This  volume  has  about  750  pages,  the  first  875  of  which  are  de- 
voted to  the  discussion  of  the  general  subjects  of  propagation,  nur- 
sery culture,  selection  and  planting,  cultivation  of  orchards,  care  of 
fruit,  insects,  and  the  like  ;  the  remainder  is  occupied  with  descrip- 
tions of  apples.  "With  the  richness  of  material  at  hand,  the  trouble 
was  to  decide  what  to  leave  out.  It  will  be  found  that  while  the 
old  and  standard  varieties  are  not  neglected,  the  new  and  promising 
sorts,  especially  those  of  the  South  and  West,  have  prominence, 
A  list  of  selections  for  different  localities  by  eminent  orchardists  is 
a  valuable  portion  of  the  volume,  while  the  Analytical  Index  or 
Catalogue  Raisonne,  as  the  French  would  say,  is  the  most  extended 
American  fruit  list  ever  published,  and  gives  evidence  of  a  fearful 
amount  of  labor. 

CONTENTS. 

Chapter  I— INTRODUCTORY. 

Chapter         II HISTORY   OP   THE    APPLE. 

Chapter        III— PROPAGATION. 

Buds  and  Cuttings— Grafting— Budding— The  Nursery. 

Chapter        IV DWARFING. 

Chapter  V DISEASES. 

Chapter        VI THE    SITE    FOR    AN    ORCHARD. 

Chapter     VII PREPARATION  OF  SOIL  FOR  AN  ORCHARD. 

Chapter   VIII.— SELECTION   AND   PLANTING. 

Chapter        IX CULTURE,  Etc. 

Chapter  X— PHILOSOPHY    OF   PRUNING. 

Chapter       XL— THINNING. 

Chapter     XIL— RIPENING   AND   PRESERVING   FRUITS. 

Chapter  XIII  and  XIV.— INSECTS. 

Chapter     XV.— CHARACTERS       OF       FRUITS      AND      THEIR 
VALUE— TERMS   USED. 

Chapter    XVI.— CLASSIFICATION. 

Necessity  for— Basis  of— Characters— Shape— Its  Regu- 
larity—Flavor— Color— Their  several  Values,  etc.,  De- 
scription of  Apples. 

Chapter  XVII.— FRUIT   LISTS  — CATALOGUE   AND   INDEX  OF 
FRUITS. 

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GARDENING  FOR  PROFIT, 

In  the  Market  and.  Family  Grarden, 
By  Peter  Hekdekson. 

nmELfSr     ILLUSTRATED. 

This  is  the  first  work  on  Market  Gardening  ever  published  in  this 
country.  Its  author  is  well  known  as  a  market  gardener  of  eighteen 
years'  successful  experience.  In  this  work  he  has  recorded  this 
experience,  and  given,  without  reservation,  the  methods  necessary 
to  the  profitable  culture  of  the  commercial  or 

IMLA^HKET     GARDEN. 

It  is  a  work  for  which  there  has  long  been  a  demand,  and  one 
which  will  commend  itself,  not  only  to  those  who  grow  vegetables 
for  sale,  but  to  the  cultivator  of  the 

FAMILY  GAKLEff, 

to  whom  it  presents  methods  quite  different  from  the  old  ones  gen- 
erally practiced.  It  is  an  original  and  purely  American  work,  and 
not  made  up,  as  books  on  gardening  too  often  are,  by  quotations 
from  foreign  authors. 

Every  thing  is  made  perfectly  plain,  and  the  subject  treated  in  all 
its  details,  from  the  selection  of  the  soil  to  preparing  the  products 
for  market. 

CONTENTS. 

Men  fitted  for  the  Business  of  Gardening. 

The  Amount  of  Capital  Required,  and 

Working  Force  per  Acre. 

Profits  of  Market  Gardening. 

Location,  Situation,  and  Laying  Out. 

Soils,  Drainage,  and  Preparation. 

Manures,  Implements. 

Uses  and  Management  of  Cold  Frames. 

Formation  and  Management  of  Hot-beds. 

Forcing  Pits  or  Green-houses. 

Seeds  and  Seed  Kaising. 

How,  When,  and  Where  to  Sow  Seeds; 

Transplanting,  Insects. 

Packing  of  Vegetables  for  Shipping. 

Preservation  of  Vegetables  in  Winter. 

Vegetables,  their  Varieties  and  Cultivation. 

In  the  last  chapter,  the  most  valuable  kinds  are  described,  and 
the  culture  proper  to  each  is  given  in  detail. 

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$0 


